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利用者:加藤勝憲/モデル法

モデル法は、モデル法またはモデル立法とも呼ばれ、複数の独立した立法府で制定が提案され、配布されるために一元的に起草された法律の提案例である。その動機は、通常、司法管轄区間の法的統一性を高め、立法文言のよりよい実践を促進するという期待である。また、そのような理想に偽装したロビー活動が別の動機となることもある。モデル法は、そのまま制定されること、若干の修正を加えた後に制定されること、または立法府の一般的なガイドとして機能することを意図している場合がある。

A model act, also called a model law or a piece of model legislation, is a suggested example for a law, drafted centrally to be disseminated and suggested for enactment in multiple independent legislatures. The motivation classically has been the hope of fostering more legal uniformity among jurisdictions, and better practice in legislative wording, than would otherwise occur; another motivation sometimes has been lobbying disguised under such ideals. Model laws can be intended to be enacted verbatim, to be enacted after minor modification, or to serve more as general guides for the legislatures.

モデル法は、連邦制において特に普及しています。これは、連邦主体 (州、県、その他の主体など) が自治的または半自治的であるにもかかわらず、管轄区域間で法律の大幅な統一性から恩恵を受けることができるためである。たとえば、米国では、国全体が 50 の半自治州で構成され、各州が独自の議会と法律を持っているため、不必要な差異を避け、重要な自治的差異にのみ差異を残すことが重要である。そこでは、モデル法はモデル法またはモデル法案と呼ばれる。多くの米国の特別利益団体がモデル法を起草し、議員に可決するよう働きかけている。特に、保守的な米国立法交流協議会 (ALEC) は、2010 年以降、数百のモデル法を可決させることに成功している。統一法は、記載どおりに制定されることを意図したモデル法である。統一法は、統一性が重要な分野 (州間通商の促進など) で法律を起草することを目的とする州立非営利団体である統一法委員会 (ULC) によって起草される。

Model laws are especially prevalent in federations because the federal subjects (for example, states, provinces, or other subjects) are autonomous or semi-autonomous but nonetheless can benefit from a substantial degree of uniformity of laws among jurisdictions. For example, in the United States, because the country consists of 50 semi-autonomous states, each with its own legislature and set of laws, avoidance of needless variation is valuable, reserving variation only to essential autonomous differences. There, model laws are referred to as model acts or model bills. Many American special interest groups draft model acts which they lobby lawmakers to pass. In particular, the conservative American Legislative Exchange Council (ALEC) has successfully gotten hundreds of model acts passed since 2010. Uniform acts are model acts intended to be enacted exactly as written. They are drafted by the Uniform Law Commission (ULC), a state-run non-profit organization whose purpose is to draft laws in areas where uniformity is important (for example, to facilitate interstate commerce).

この概念は連盟に特有のものではなく、国連国際商取引法委員会、国際赤十字・赤新月社運動、欧州連合などの国際組織も、異なる国々間の法律を調和させるためのモデル法を制定している。

The concept is not specific to federations, and international organizations such as the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law, the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, and the European Union have also written model laws to harmonize laws between different countries.

モデル法は本来、正当な目的（気まぐれさを抑えた統一的な正義など）を果たすことができるが、偽装ロビー活動に歪曲されているとして批判されてきた。そのため、このようなモデル法に対するアメリカの批評家は、それを「模倣法」「空欄補充法」「コピー＆ペースト法」と呼んでいる。この概念は、2019年に30人の調査ジャーナリストの連合が「コピー、ペースト、立法」と呼ばれるシリーズを発表し、多くのモデル法の背後にある企業の利益を調査した際に、いくらか論争を巻き起こした。

Although model acts inherently can serve valid purposes (such as for uniform justice, with less capriciousness), their distortion into disguised lobbying has been criticized. American critics of such model laws have thus referred to them as "copycat laws", "fill-in-the-blanks laws", and "copy-paste laws". The concept caused some controversy in 2019 when a coalition of 30 investigative journalists published a series called "Copy, Paste, Legislate", investigating the corporate interests behind many model laws.

American drafters of model law

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Harry H. Laughlin's Model Eugenical Sterilization Law

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One early example of a model law was eugenicist Harry H. Laughlin's Model Eugenical Sterilization Law. In 1922, he published the book Eugenical Sterilization in the United States whose purpose was to persuade state legislatures into passing sterilization laws, which it also did.[1] In chapter XV of the book he included the bill Model Eugenical Sterilization Law.[2] Two years later, Laughlin's sterilization act was enacted almost unmodified by the Virginia Sterilization Act of 1924. The Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the law in Buck v. Bell in 1927, paving the way for similar sterilization laws in other states.[1]

Uniform Law Commission

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  1. ^ a b Antonios (April 14, 2011). “Sterilization Act of 1924”. The Embryo Project Encyclopedia. June 8, 2015閲覧。
  2. ^ Laughlin, Chapter XV Archived 2011-07-28 at the Wayback Machine.

非営利団体の統一法委員会（ULC）は、以前は統一州法委員会全国会議として知られ、アメリカの管轄区域に強力な法律を提供するために1892年に設立されました。[4] ULCは、統一が望ましく実用的な州法の分野で統一法の制定を推進している[5]。 ULCはモデル法と統一法の両方を作成しています。設立以来、250を超える統一法を作成している[6]。

The non-profit Uniform Law Commission (ULC), formerly known as the National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws, was founded in 1892 to provide American jurisdictions with robust legislation.[1] ULC promotes enactment of uniform acts in areas of state law where uniformity is desirable and practical.[2] ULC produces both model and uniform acts. Since its inception it has produced over 250 uniform acts.[3]

ULCは2005年にモデル部族担保取引法を起草し、貸付や信用取引の一貫性とアクセス性を高めるために、保留地における部族の法的基盤のテンプレートとして機能した[7]。

ULC drafted the Model Tribal Secured Transactions Act in 2005 which served as a template for tribal legal infrastructure on reservations to provide consistency and greater accessibility in lending and credit transactions.[4]

American Bar Association

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The American Bar Association is an association of American lawyers and law students which has published a large number of model acts. Its most successful model law is probably the Model Business Corporation Act published in 1950. 2020年現在, the act is followed by 24 states. Another influential act ABA has drafted is the 1979 Model Procurement Code for State and Local Governments, which 2000年現在 had been adopted in full by 16 states and in part by several more.[5] The act went through a major update in 2000.

Other model acts drafted by ABA include the Model Airspace Act in 1973,[6] and the Model Code for Public Infrastructure Procurement in 2007.[7]

American Law Institute

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The American Law Institute (ALI) is most famous for its Restatements of the Law but has also produced model acts. A well-known example is the Model Penal Code published in 1962 seeking to harmonize state criminal law.

American Legislative Exchange Council

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The American Legislative Exchange Council (ALEC) an American nonprofit organization—whose members include conservative state legislators and private sector representatives—is a prolific producer of model state-level laws for conservative causes.[8][9] ALEC has deep ties to the State Policy Network (SPN), an umbrella organization for a consortium of conservative and libertarian think tanks that focus on state-level policy,[10] which is one of ALEC's sponsors.[11]

One of ALEC's earliest model acts were the 1981 Animal and Ecological Terrorism Act to prohibit acts that would make agricultural business operations more difficult.[12] The act sought to impose harsh penalties, including a terrorism registry, on instances of direct action performed by organizations such as the Animal Liberation Front.[13]

ALEC's model acts concern many topics important to conservatives like Stand Your Ground, Voter ID, illegal immigration,[14] truth in sentencing, three strikes,[15] right to know,[16] and cutting taxes.[17] ALEC has drafted and distributed state-level legislation to limit.[要説明][18] It has also opposed the creation or expansion of municipal broadband networks.[19][20][21]

ALEC has been very successful in getting its laws passed; according to Brendan Greeley, lawmakers introduce bills based on the organization's model acts about 1,000 times per year in state legislatures and about 200 of them become law.[22] In 2015, ALEC model bills were reflected in about 172 measures introduced in 42 states, according to the Center for Media and Democracy, publishers of the ALEC Exposed series.[23]

ALEC has also been criticized for being funded by big corporations and over alleged underhandedness. The Guardian has described it as a "dating agency for Republican state legislators and big corporations" to "frame rightwing legislative agendas".[24][25]

Notable model acts

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Some notable model acts not drafted by the above-mentioned organizations:

  • National Notary Association provided the draft for the Uniform Notary Act in 1973. It was renamed to the Model Notary Act and expanded in 1984, 2002, and 2010. The act has been adopted in its entirety in several jurisdictions.[26]
  • The United States Department of Justice issued the Revised Model Tribal Sex Offender Registry Code/Ordinance in 2017. It offered guidelines to American Indian tribes on how to implement the Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act.
  • The National Association of Civil-Law Notaries issued the Model Civil Law Notary Act to streamline law relating to civil law notary. The act has been enacted in Alabama and Florida.[27]
  • The National Association of Insurance Commissioners's issued the Uniform Health Carrier External Review Model Act. The 2010 Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act requires states to enact laws based on the model act.[28]
  • President Franklin D. Roosevelt wrote the Standard State Soil Conservation Districts Law, a model act he submitted to the states.[29] It led to the establishment of the New York State Soil and Water Conservation Committee on April 23, 1940, and the soil and water conservation districts were authorized with the enactment of the Soil Conservation District Law, a law based on that model act.[30]
  • The Tenther movement in 2013 and 2014, introduced bills based on their model act the Fourth Amendment Protection Act in several state legislatures via Republican and Democrat lawmakers. The intent of the bills was to prevent state governments from co-operating with the National Security Agency's mass surveillance program.[31][32]
  • In 2006, the National Auctioneers Association proposed the Uniform Auction and Auctioneer Licensing Act, model legislation governing auctions and auctioneers.[33][34]
  • The National Committee on Uniform Traffic Laws and Ordinances introduced and periodically updates Uniform Vehicle Code.
  • Model State Emergency Health Powers Act, drafted by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in 1999.
  • Federal Rules of Civil Procedure (FRCP), published in 1938 to harmonize the rules governing civil procedure. 35 states have adopted rules based on FRCP.
  • Partisanship Out of Civics Act (POCA), published in February 2021 by the National Association of Scholars (NAS) by Stanley Kurtz—National Review education writer and Senior Fellow at the Ethics and Public Policy Center[35]—to limit the teaching of critical race theory in schools. This model bill, particularly Section 7—which specifically bans certain concepts—has been incorporated into state legislation in Idaho, Oklahoma, Iowa, Tennessee, Texas, Florida, Montana, Utah, Georgia, and South Carolina.[36][37]

International model laws

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An example of an international model law is the UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration. Model legislative provisions on privately financed infrastructure projects were drafted by UNCITRAL and recommended for states to use by the United Nations General Assembly in 2004. Other UNCITRAL Legislative Guides, which make recommendations for efficient approaches to addressing an area of law within a national or local context, are listed at United Nations Commission on International Trade Law#Legislative Guides.

"Copy, Paste, Legislate"

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In 2019, a team of 30 reporters from the Center for Public Integrity (CPI), USA TODAY, and The Arizona Republic published the result of a two-year-long investigation into model acts entitled "Copy, Paste, Legislate".[38] The investigation raised concerns over the role of ALEC and other corporate-sponsored organizations on the American legislative process.

The investigation used text analysis software called Legislative Influence Detector created by Joe Walsh, a former data scientist at the University of Chicago to spot similarities between model acts and enacted legislation. Its main finding was that during the period 2010 to 2018 lawmakers had introduced bills based on model acts at least 10,000 times. Another 10,000 bills were likely copied but were more dissimilar. The investigation identified over 2,100 model acts but speculated that the real number is far higher since many organizations keep their model acts secret. In many states, the use of model bills was found to have supplanted the traditional way of writing legislation "from scratch".[38]

Mississippi was found to be the state with the highest number of bills introduced based on model acts, 744 - 200 more than the next highest state. 288 came from the non-partisan Council of State Governments and 255 from ALEC. But only 57 of them became law, according to the investigation.[39]

Open recall disclosure

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The "Copy, Paste, Legislate" investigation uncovered a legal initiative by the car industry to enact laws that would require dealers to disclose if a bought used car were under open recall, something most states do not require. The car industry's initiative was in response to other legal initiatives that called for banning the sales of used cars under open recall entirely.[40]

The first bill produced by the initiative was introduced in 2014 by New Jersey Speaker, Paul D. Moriarty and called for "a fine for failing to disclose open recalls to customers."[40] It was based on model law that had been crafted by a lobbyist who headed the New Jersey Coalition of Automotive Retailers. The lobbyist said that their "model legislation" provided "suggested language" and was never intended to be a copy-and-paste exercise."[40][41] Similar model legislation was drafted by the Washington, D.C.-based Automotive Trade Association Executives (ATAE), representing over 100 "executives from regional auto dealer associations".[40] The bill allowed dealers to continue selling recalled cars as long as they disclosed open recalls.[40] The dealers worked with over 600 lobbyists in 43 states to assist in getting the legislation passed.[40] From 2014 through 2019, lawmakers in eleven states introduced similar bills into their state legislatures.[40]

"Right-to-try"

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The libertarian Arizona-based Goldwater Institute, drafted the "right-to-try" law that was signed into law in Ohio in 2016 by then-Governor John Kasich. It allows patients with terminal illnesses to try drugs that the federal Food and Drug Administration has not approved. The law was passed on the federal level in 2018.[42]

Anti-BDS laws

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The "Copy, Paste, Legislate" investigation also documented the Israel lobby's largely successful attempts to get statehouses to pass legislation to curb the Palestinian-led BDS movement. BDS calls for comprehensive boycotts of Israel until it stops its human rights violations against Palestinians. The legislation that the Israel lobby promotes requires state contractors to pledge not to boycott Israel and state pension funds to divest from entities that do.[43]

One of the first anti-BDS law was sponsored by Republican lawmaker Alan Clemmons who introduced it in 2015. He worked with the Israeli-American Coalition for Action's (AIC) Joe Sabag, his "buddy and wordsmith-in-chief", to prepare the bill.[43] Eugene Kontorovich, a George Mason University law professor, assisted in drafting the legislation. He also helped other states with their anti-BDS laws and frequently defends their constitutionality in the media.[43] By May 2019, 25 other states had adopted similar measures. Many of the bills shared exact wording.[43] The anti-BDS initiatives, undertaken by activist groups concerned about the rise of antisemitism, such as the Jewish Federations of North America (JFNA) and the Israeli-American Coalition for Action, have been largely successful in pushing the anti-boycott legislation through state legislatures, according to a two-year collaborative investigative journal report. A JFNA lobbyist wrote the "anti-boycott executive order and news release" for the governor of Louisiana.[43] A pro-Israel lobbyist closely helped edit the bill and guided the lawmaker who introduced and supported the anti-boycott legislation in Nevada.[43]

参照

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脚注・参考文献

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[[Category:アメリカ合衆国の法]] [[Category:未査読の翻訳があるページ]]

  1. ^ “ULC Constitution & Bylaws”. Uniform Law Commission (8 Jan 2019). 8 January 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。8 January 2019閲覧。
  2. ^ “About Us”. Uniform Law Commission (8 Jan 2019). 8 January 2019時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。8 January 2019閲覧。
  3. ^ “Uniform Laws and Model Acts”. 2023年6月2日閲覧。
  4. ^ “Piikani Money Campaign”. The Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. 2020年1月13日閲覧。
  5. ^ “2000 ABA Model Procurement Code”. 2023年6月2日閲覧。
  6. ^ Committee Of The Section Of Real Property, Probate Trust Law (1973). “Model Airspace Act”. Real Property, Probate and Trust Journal 8 (3): 504–508. JSTOR 20781272. 
  7. ^ “2007 Model Code for Public Infrastructure Procurement (PIP)”. 2023年6月2日閲覧。
  8. ^ May, Clifford (1987年8月30日). “Transportation Chief Attacks Congress on Safety”. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/1987/08/30/us/transportation-chief-attacks-congress-on-safety.html 
  9. ^ Griffin, Marshall (January 14, 2014). “'Right-to-work' bill praised and blasted in House committee hearing”. KBIA. http://kbia.org/post/right-work-bill-praised-and-blasted-house-committee-hearing 
  10. ^ Fund, John (September 28, 2000). “Forget Washington”. Wall Street Journal. https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB122401042105333309 5 June 2015閲覧。 
  11. ^ Abowd, Paul. “Koch-funded charity passes money to free-market think tanks in states”. NBC News. Center for Public Integrity. http://investigations.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/02/14/16939114-koch-funded-charity-passes-money-to-free-market-think-tanks-in-states March 11, 2015閲覧。 
  12. ^ “ALEC in Colorado: Uncovering the Influence of the American Legislative Exchange Council (ALEC) in the Colorado Legislature”. 2023年6月2日閲覧。
  13. ^ “Caging Animal Advocates Political Freedoms: The Unconstitutionality of the Animal and Ecological Terrorism Act”. Animal Legal & Historical Center (January 1, 2005). September 9, 2020閲覧。
  14. ^ Archibold, Randal C. (April 24, 2010). “U.S.'s Toughest Immigration Law Is Signed in Arizona”. The New York Times: p. 1. https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/24/us/politics/24immig.html 
  15. ^ Beall, Pat (November 22, 2013). “Big business, legislators pushed for stiff sentences”. The Palm Beach Post. http://www.mypalmbeachpost.com/news/news/big-business-group-behind-push-that-filled-florida/nbYTc/ 
  16. ^ McIntire, Mike (April 21, 2012). “Conservative Nonprofit Acts as a Stealth Business Lobbyist”. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/22/us/alec-a-tax-exempt-group-mixes-legislators-and-lobbyists.html May 15, 2012閲覧。 
  17. ^ Rothschild, Scott (December 17, 2013). “Brownback says perception of ALEC influence is 'overblown'”. Lawrence Journal-World. http://www2.ljworld.com/weblogs/capitol-report/2013/dec/17/brownback-says-perception-of-alec-influe/ 
  18. ^ Farivar (29 June 2012). “South Carolina passes bill against municipal broadband” (英語). Ars Technica. 24 April 2019閲覧。
  19. ^ John (February 2016). “NTIA's Strickling Touts Success of BTOP” (英語). Multichannel. 24 April 2019閲覧。
  20. ^ “Fact check: Truth-testing Fort Collins broadband ads” (英語). Coloradoan. 24 April 2019閲覧。
  21. ^ “Is municipal broadband more important than net neutrality?” (英語). Fortune. 24 April 2019閲覧。
  22. ^ Greeley, Brendan (May 3, 2012). “ALEC's Secrets Revealed; Corporations Flee”. Bloomberg Businessweek. オリジナルのMay 4, 2012時点におけるアーカイブ。. https://web.archive.org/web/20120504140316/http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2012-05-03/alecs-secrets-revealed-corporations-flee. 
  23. ^ Fischer (March 8, 2016). “Cashing in on Kids: 172 ALEC Education Bills Push Privatization in 2015”. Center for Media and Democracy (CMD) via PR Watch. January 13, 2020閲覧。
  24. ^ Pilkington, Ed (November 20, 2013). “Obamacare faces new threat at state level from corporate interest group Alec”. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/nov/20/obamacare-alec-republican-legislators 
  25. ^ Greenblatt, Alan (December 2011). “ALEC Enjoys A New Wave of Influence and Criticism”. Governing. http://www.governing.com/topics/politics/ALEC-enjoys-new-wave-influence-criticism.html 
  26. ^ “Model Notary Act”. National Notary Association. September 8, 2020閲覧。
  27. ^ “Civil Law Notary: An Office Whose Time Has Come?”. 2023年6月2日閲覧。
  28. ^ “Understanding Independent Medical Review and Utilization Review Services”. NAIRO. 2023年6月2日閲覧。
  29. ^ New Employee Orientation, New York State Soil and Water Conservation Committee, https://www.nys-soilandwater.org/DisLawPPT/orientation-presentation.pptx 2017年1月22日閲覧。 
  30. ^ Phelps, Jess R. (2006). “A Vision of the New Deal Unfulfilled? Soil and Water Conservation Districts and Land Use Regulation”. Drake Journal of Agricultural Law 11: 353. SSRN 979108. http://students.law.drake.edu/aglawjournal/docs/agVol11No3-Phelps.pdf. 
  31. ^ Ackerman, Spencer (2014年2月12日). “Utah lawmaker floats bill to cut off NSA data centre's water supply”. The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/feb/12/utah-lawmaker-nsa-data-centre-water-supply 2020年1月14日閲覧。 
  32. ^ Vijayan, Jaikumar (2014-01-07), California lawmakers move to bar state help to NSA, Computer World, http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9245232/California_lawmakers_move_to_bar_state_help_to_NSA, "The Utah bill aims to prohibit state and local agencies from providing water to a giant new NSA data center near Salt Lake City." 
  33. ^ NAA Archived 2007-11-10 at the Wayback Machine.
  34. ^ NAA | NAA Drafts Sample Auction License Law and Encourages Adoption by State Legislatures Archived 2009-01-29 at the Wayback Machine.
  35. ^ Kurtz, Stanley (February 15, 2021). “Partisanship Out of Civics Act”. National Association of Scholars. オリジナルのOctober 23, 2021時点におけるアーカイブ。. https://web.archive.org/web/20211024021957/https://www.nas.org/blogs/article/the-partisanship-out-of-civics-act October 22, 2021閲覧。 
  36. ^ “2021-2022 Bill 4392: Partisanship Out of Civics Act - South Carolina Legislature Online” (May 23, 2021). October 22, 2021閲覧。
  37. ^ Rawshan, Ray; Gibbons, Alexandra (July 2, 2021). “Why are states banning critical race theory?”. Brookings. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/fixgov/2021/07/02/why-are-states-banning-critical-race-theory/ October 22, 2021閲覧。 
  38. ^ a b O'Dell (4 April 2019). “How we uncovered 10,000 times lawmakers introduced copycat model bills — and why it matters”. Center for Public Integrity and The Arizona Republic. January 13, 2020閲覧。
  39. ^ Bologna, Giacomo (April 4, 2019). “How copycat bills become your laws”. Clarion Ledger (Mississippi). https://www.clarionledger.com/story/news/politics/2019/04/04/model-bill-investigation-mississippi-copycat-legislation-leads-nation/3204987002/ January 13, 2020閲覧。 
  40. ^ a b c d e f g Kaneya (April 4, 2019). “The multistate push to let dealers get away with selling you a defective car”. Center for Public Integrity, USA TODAY and The Arizona Republic. January 13, 2020閲覧。
  41. ^ LaForme (January 8, 2020). “This tool illuminates the hidden hands of special interest groups in legislation across the U.S.”. Poynter. January 13, 2020閲覧。
  42. ^ Borchardt (April 4, 2019). “Copycat bills: How Ohio compares”. January 13, 2020閲覧。
  43. ^ a b c d e f Essley Whyte, Liz (1 May 2019). “One way to silence Israel boycotts? Get lawmakers to pass anti-BDS bills”. USA Today and Center for Public Integrity (CPI). https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/investigations/2019/05/01/statehouse-model-bills-bds-protest-bans/3575083002/ 16 January 2020閲覧。 
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