利用者:野島崎沖/作業場3号室

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FRONDE, THE, the name given to a civil war in France which lasted from 1648 to 1652, and to its sequel, the war with Spain in 1653-59. The word means a sling, and was applied to this contest from the circumstance that the windows of Cardinal Mazarin’s adherents were pelted with stones by the Paris mob. Its original object was the redress of grievances, but the movement soon degenerated into a factional contest among the nobles, who sought to reverse the results of Richelieu’s work and to overthrow his successor Mazarin. In May 1648 a tax levied on judicial officers of the parlement of Paris was met by that body, not merely with a refusal to pay, but with a condemnation of earlier financial edicts, and even with a demand for the acceptance of a scheme of constitutional reforms framed by a committee of the parlement. This charter was somewhat influenced by contemporary events in England. But there is no real likeness between the two revolutions, the French parlement being no more representative of the people than the Inns of Court were in England. The political history of the time is dealt with in the article France: History, the present article being concerned chiefly with the military operations of what was perhaps the most costly and least necessary civil war in history.

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最初に発生した「高等法院のフロンド」の軍事的動向に関する記録はほとんどない。1648年8月、ランスでのコンデ親王の勝利に気を強くしたマザランは高等法院の指導者たちを逮捕したものの、パリ市民が蜂起して通りにバリケードを築いた。事態に対処すべき軍隊を手元に持っていなかった宮廷は逮捕者たちを釈放して改革を約束したが、10月22日の夜にパリから逃げ出してしまった。だが、ウェストファーレン条約の締結によって自由に動けるようになったコンデ公の軍隊が1649年1月にパリを包囲した。僅かな流血沙汰の後の3月にリュイユ和議が締結された。パリ市民は依然として反マザランだったが、親王や貴族の支持者が提案したスペインの援助を仰ぐ件は拒否し、外部からの援助なしには軍事的勝算がないことが明白となり、降伏して妥協を受け入れた。これ以降、フロンドの乱は卑劣な陰謀と中途半端な戦争となり、当初の立憲闘争的な性格は失われた。指導者たちはオルレアン公ガストン（国王の叔父）、コンデ親王、その弟のコンティ親王、ブイヨン公とチュレンヌ公の兄弟といった不平貴族が指導者となった。彼らの加えてオルレアン公の娘のアンヌ・マリー・ルイーズ・ドルレアン（ラ・グランド・マドモワゼル）、コンデ公の妹のロングヴィル公爵夫人、シュヴルーズ公爵夫人そして抜け目ない策謀家のパウロ・デ・コンディ（後のレッツ枢機卿）といった人々がいた。内乱は戦争に熟達した傭兵たちによって戦われるようになり、二人の有能な将軍、より多くの凡庸な将軍そして戦争を気高い娯楽と考える貴族たちが兵たちを率いた。大部分の民衆はどちらにも加担しようとはしなかった。

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リュイユ和議は1649年までしか持たなかった。貴族たちは再びマザランに対する陰謀を画策し、オルレアン公、コンディ親王そしてシュヴルーズ公爵夫人と和解したマザランは1650年1月14日に突如としてコンデ親王、コンティ公そしてロングヴィル公爵夫人を逮捕する挙に出る。このクーデターに続く内乱は「貴族のフロンド」と呼ばれる。この際には（これまでそしてこれ以降も国王の忠臣であり続ける）ティレンヌ公が反乱軍を指揮した。彼がエゲリア（女神）と慕うロングヴィル公爵夫人の催促を受け、彼は彼女の兄弟であり自らの古くからの同志であるフライブルク公そしてネルトリンゲン公の救出を決意する。彼はスペイン軍の助けを受けてこれを行おうとし、スペイン領ネーデルラント（現在のベルギー）総督レオポルド枢機卿率いる強力な軍隊がアルトアに集結した。だが、国境地帯の住民は侵略に対して立ち上がり、シャンパーニュの国王軍は42歳にして36回の戦闘経験を持つ有能なルショワールズ公（Caesar, duc de Choiseul）が指揮しており、ギーズの小城塞が枢機卿軍の撃退に成功した。しかしながら、その後すぐにマザランは南部での反乱鎮圧の増援のためにルショワールズ公の軍隊を引き抜いてしまい、その結果、国王軍は退却を余儀なくされた。その後、フランスにとっては幸運なことに、枢機卿はスペイン王の資金と兵をフランスの内紛ために浪費しすぎたと感じた。正規軍は冬営のために撤退し、ティレンヌ公にはフロンド派とロレーヌ人の雑多な集団が残された。ルショワールズ公は武力と買収によって1650年12月13日にルテルを降伏させ、ここの救援に向かっていたティレンヌ公は急ぎ退却を余儀なくされた。だが、彼は恐るべき敵手であり、ルショワールズ公と国王軍に同行したマザランは幾つもの不安要因を持ち戦闘に敗れることになる。

The marshal chose nevertheless to force Turenne to a decision, and the battle of Blanc-Champ (near Somme-Py) or Rethel was the consequence. Both sides were at a standstill in strong positions, Plessis-Praslin doubtful of the trustworthiness of his cavalry, Turenne too weak to attack, when a dispute for precedence arose between the Gardes françaises and the Picardie regiment. The royal infantry had to be rearranged in order of regimental seniority, and Turenne, seeing and desiring to profit by the attendant disorder, came out of his stronghold and attacked with the greatest vigour. The battle (December 15, 1650) was severe and for a time doubtful, but Turenne’s Frondeurs gave way in the end, and his army, as an army, ceased to exist. Turenne himself, undeceived as to the part he was playing in the drama, asked and received the young king’s pardon, and meantime the court, with the maison du roi and other loyal troops, had subdued the minor risings without difficulty (March-April 1651). Condé, Conti and Longueville were released, and by April 1651 the rebellion had everywhere collapsed. Then followed a few months of hollow peace and the court returned to Paris. Mazarin, an object of hatred to all the princes, had already retired into exile. “Le temps est un galant homme,” he remarked, “laissons le faire!” and so it proved. His absence left the field free for mutual jealousies, and for the remainder of the year anarchy reigned in France. In December 1651 Mazarin returned with a small army. The war began again, and this time Turenne and Condé were pitted against one another. After the first campaign, as we shall see, the civil war ceased, but for several other campaigns the two great soldiers were opposed to one another, Turenne as the defender of France, Condé as a Spanish invader. Their personalities alone give threads of continuity to these seven years of wearisome manœuvres, sieges and combats, though for a right understanding of the causes which were to produce the standing armies of the age of Louis XIV. and Frederick the Great the military student should search deeply into the material and moral factors that here decided the issue.

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The début of the new Frondeurs took place in Guyenne (February-March 1652), while their Spanish ally, the archduke Leopold William, captured various northern fortresses. On the Loire, whither the centre of gravity was soon transferred, the Frondeurs were commanded by intriguers and quarrelsome lords, until Condé’s arrival from Guyenne. His bold trenchant leadership made itself felt in the action of Bléneau (7th April 1652), in which a portion of the royal army was destroyed, but fresh troops came up to oppose him, and from the skilful dispositions made by his opponents Condé felt the presence of Turenne and broke off the action. The royal army did likewise. Condé invited the commander of Turenne’s rearguard to supper, chaffed him unmercifully for allowing the prince’s men to surprise him in the morning, and by way of farewell remarked to his guest, “Quel dommage que des braves gens comme nous se coupent la gorge pour un faquin”—an incident and a remark that thoroughly justify the iron-handed absolutism of Louis XIV. There was no hope for France while tournaments on a large scale and at the public’s expense were fashionable amongst the grands seigneurs. After Bléneau both armies marched to Paris to negotiate with the parlement, de Retz and Mlle de Montpensier, while the archduke took more fortresses in Flanders, and Charles IV., duke of Lorraine, with an army of plundering mercenaries, marched through Champagne to join Condé. As to the latter, Turenne manœuvred past Condé and planted himself in front of the mercenaries, and their leader, not wishing to expend his men against the old French regiments, consented to depart with a money payment and the promise of two tiny Lorraine fortresses. A few more manœuvres, and the royal army was able to hem in the Frondeurs in the Faubourg St Antoine (2nd July 1652) with their backs to the closed gates of Paris. The royalists attacked all along the line and won a signal victory in spite of the knightly prowess of the prince and his great lords, but at the critical moment Gaston’s daughter persuaded the Parisians to open the gates and to admit Condé’s army. She herself turned the guns of the Bastille on the pursuers. An insurrectional government was organized in the capital and proclaimed Monsieur lieutenant-general of the realm. Mazarin, feeling that public opinion was solidly against him, left France again, and the bourgeois of Paris, quarrelling with the princes, permitted the king to enter the city on the 21st of October 1652. Mazarin returned unopposed in February 1653.

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The Fronde as a civil war was now over. The whole country, wearied of anarchy and disgusted with the princes, came to look to the king’s party as the party of order and settled government, and thus the Fronde prepared the way for the absolutism of Louis XIV. The general war continued in Flanders, Catalonia and Italy wherever a Spanish and a French garrison were face to face, and Condé with the wreck of his army openly and definitely entered the service of the king of Spain. The “Spanish Fronde” was almost purely a military affair and, except for a few outstanding incidents, a dull affair to boot. In 1653 France was so exhausted that neither invaders nor defenders were able to gather supplies to enable them to take the field till July. At one moment, near Péronne, Condé had Turenne at a serious disadvantage, but he could not galvanize the Spanish general Count Fuensaldana, who was more solicitous to preserve his master’s soldiers than to establish Condé as mayor of the palace to the king of France, and the armies drew apart again without fighting. In 1654 the principal incident was the siege and relief of Arras. On the night of the 24th-25th August the lines of circumvallation drawn round that place by the prince were brilliantly stormed by Turenne’s army, and Condé won equal credit for his safe withdrawal of the besieging corps under cover of a series of bold cavalry charges led by himself as usual, sword in hand. In 1655 Turenne captured the fortresses of Landrecies, Condé and St Ghislain. In 1656 the prince of Condé revenged himself for the defeat of Arras by storming Turenne’s circumvallation around Valenciennes (16th July), but Turenne drew off his forces in good order. The campaign of 1657 was uneventful, and is only to be remembered because a body of 6000 British infantry, sent by Cromwell in pursuance of his treaty of alliance with Mazarin, took part in it. The presence of the English contingent and its very definite purpose of making Dunkirk a new Calais, to be held by England for ever, gave the next campaign a character of certainty and decision which is entirely wanting in the rest of the war. Dunkirk was besieged promptly and in great force, and when Don Juan of Austria and Condé appeared with the relieving army from Furnes, Turenne advanced boldly to meet him. The battle of the Dunes, fought on the 14th of June 1658, was the first real trial of strength since the battle of the Faubourg St Antoine. Successes on one wing were compromised by failure on the other, but in the end Condé drew off with heavy losses, the success of his own cavalry charges having entirely failed to make good the defeat of the Spanish right wing amongst the Dunes. Here the “red-coats” made their first appearance on a continental battlefield, under the leadership of Sir W. Lockhart, Cromwell’s ambassador at Paris, and astonished both armies by the stubborn fierceness of their assaults, for they were the products of a war where passions ran higher and the determination to win rested on deeper foundations than in the dégringolade of the feudal spirit in which they now figured. Dunkirk fell, as a result of the victory, and flew the St George’s cross till Charles II. sold it to the king of France. A last desultory campaign followed in 1659—the twenty-fifth year of the Franco-Spanish War—and the peace of the Pyrenees was signed on the 5th of November. On the 27th of January 249 1660 the prince asked and obtained at Aix the forgiveness of Louis XIV. The later careers of Turenne and Condé as the great generals—and obedient subjects—of their sovereign are described in the article Dutch Wars.