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利用者:Anesth Earth/作業場

Human nose
Cross-section of the interior of a nose showing parts involved in smell (olfaction（英語版）)
概要
動脈 Sphenopalatine artery, greater palatine artery
静脈 Facial vein
神経 External nasal nerve
ラテン語 nasus
解剖学用語

The human nose is the first organ of the respiratory system. It is also the principal organ in the olfactory system（英語版）. The shape of the nose is determined by the nasal bones and the nasal cartilages（英語版）, including the nasal septum, which separates the nostrils and divides the nasal cavity into two. ヒトの鼻は呼吸器系の最初の器官である。また、嗅覚系（英語版）の主要器官でもある。鼻の形は、鼻孔と鼻腔を2つに分ける鼻中隔を含む鼻骨と鼻軟骨（英語版）によって決まる。

The nose has an important function in breathing. The nasal mucosa（英語版） lining the nasal cavity and the paranasal sinuses carries out the necessary conditioning of inhaled air by warming and moistening it. Nasal conchae, shell-like bones in the walls of the cavities, play a major part in this process. Filtering of the air by nasal hair in the nostrils prevents large particles from entering the lungs. Sneezing is a reflex to expel unwanted particles from the nose that irritate the mucosal lining. Sneezing can transmit infections, because aerosols are created in which the droplets（英語版） can harbour pathogens. 鼻は呼吸において重要な働きをしています。鼻腔と副鼻腔を覆う鼻粘膜は、吸い込んだ空気を温めたり湿らせたりすることで、必要な調整を行っている。鼻甲介は、鼻腔の壁にある貝殻のような骨で、このプロセスで大きな役割を果たしている。鼻孔にある鼻毛が空気をろ過することで、大きな粒子が肺に入るのを防いでいる。くしゃみは、粘膜を刺激する不要な粒子を鼻から排出するための反射である。くしゃみによってエアロゾルが発生し、その中に病原体が含まれることがあるため、感染症を媒介する可能性がある。


Another major function of the nose is olfaction, the sense of smell. The area of olfactory epithelium（英語版）, in the upper nasal cavity, contains specialised olfactory cells responsible for this function. 鼻のもう一つの重要な機能は嗅覚である。鼻腔上部にある嗅上皮には、嗅覚に特化した細胞があり、嗅覚の働きを担っている。


The nose is also involved in the function of speech. Nasal vowel（英語版）s and nasal consonants are produced in the process of nasalisation. The hollow cavities of the paranasal sinuses act as sound chambers that modify and amplify speech and other vocal sounds. 鼻は発話の機能にも関与している。鼻母音と鼻子音は、鼻音化の過程で作られる。副鼻腔の空洞は、音声やその他の発声音を修正・増幅する音室として機能します。


There are several plastic surgery procedures that can be done on the nose, known as rhinoplasties（英語版） available to correct various structural defects or to change the shape of the nose. Defects may be congenital, or result from nasal disorders or from trauma. These procedures are a type of reconstructive surgery. Elective procedures to change a nose shape are a type of cosmetic surgery. 様々な構造的欠陥を修正したり、鼻の形を変えたりするために、隆鼻術として知られる鼻の形成外科手術がいくつかあります。欠損は先天的なもの、鼻の疾患や外傷によるものなどがあります。これらの手術は再建手術の一種です。鼻の形を変える選択的手術は、美容整形手術の一種です。

Structure[編集]

Several bones and cartilages make up the bony-cartilaginous framework of the nose, and the internal structure.[1] The nose is also made up of types of soft tissue such as skin（英語版）, epithelia, mucous membrane, muscles, nerves, and blood vessels. In the skin there are sebaceous glands, and in the mucous membrane there are nasal glands（英語版）.[2] The bones and cartilages provide strong protection for the internal structures of the nose. There are several muscles that are involved in movements of the nose. The arrangement of the cartilages allows flexibility through muscle control to enable airflow to be modified.[2] 鼻はまた、皮膚、上皮、粘膜、筋肉、神経、血管などの軟部組織で構成されている。皮膚には皮脂腺があり、粘膜には鼻腺がある[2]。骨と軟骨は鼻の内部構造を強固に保護している。鼻の動きにはいくつかの筋肉が関与している。軟骨の配列は、空気の流れを変えることができるように、筋肉の制御によって柔軟性を可能にしている[2]。

Bones[編集]

Bones of the nose and septal cartilage
Roof of the mouth showing position of palatine bones making up the floor of the nose, and forming the posterior nasal spine（英語版） for the attachment of the musculus uvulae.

The bony structure of the nose is provided by the maxilla, frontal bone, and a number of smaller bones.[3] 鼻の骨構造は、上顎骨、前頭骨、および多数の小骨によって提供されている[3]。


The topmost bony part of the nose is formed by the nasal part of the frontal bone, which lies between the brow ridges,[3] and ends in a serrated nasal notch.[4] A left and a right nasal bone join with the nasal part of the frontal bone at either side; and these at the side with the small lacrimal bones and the frontal process of each maxilla（英語版）.[3] The internal roof of the nasal cavity is composed of the horizontal, perforated cribriform plate（英語版） of the ethmoid bone through which pass sensory fibres of the olfactory nerve. Below and behind the cribriform plate, sloping down at an angle, is the face of the sphenoid bone. 鼻の一番上の骨部分は、前頭骨の鼻側部分によって形成され、眉尾根の間に位置し[3]、鋸歯状の鼻ノッチで終わる[4]。左右の鼻骨は、左右の前頭骨の鼻側部分と結合し、これらの鼻骨は、それぞれの上顎骨の小涙骨と前頭突起と結合する。[3] 鼻腔の内壁は、篩骨（しこつ）の水平な穴のあいた篩骨板（しこつばん）で構成され、その中を嗅神経の感覚線維が通っている。篩骨板の下方と後方には蝶形骨の面があり、斜めに傾斜している。


The wall separating the two cavities of the nose, the nasal septum, is made up of bone inside and cartilage closer to the tip of the nose.[3] The bony part is formed by the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone（英語版） at the top, and the vomer bone below.[3] The floor of the nose is made up of the incisive bone and the horizontal plates of the palatine bones（英語版）, and this makes up the hard palate of the roof of the mouth. The two horizontal plates join at the midline and form the posterior nasal spine（英語版） that gives attachment to the musculus uvulae in the uvula. 鼻の2つの空洞を隔てる壁である鼻中隔は、内側の骨と鼻先に近い軟骨でできている[3]。骨部分は、上部の篩骨（しこつ）の垂直板と下部の鋤骨（じょこつ）によって形成されている[3]。2つの水平板は正中線で結合し、後鼻棘を形成して、口蓋垂にある口蓋垂筋に付着する。


The two maxilla bones join at the base of the nose at the lower nasal midline between the nostrils, and at the top of the philtrum to form the anterior nasal spine（英語版）. This thin projection of bone holds the cartilaginous center of the nose.[5][6] It is also an important cephalometric landmark（英語版）.[7] 2つの上顎骨は、鼻孔と鼻孔の間の鼻の下側の正中線で結合し、鼻孔の上部で前鼻棘を形成する。この骨の薄い突起は、鼻の軟骨の中心を保持している。 [5][6] また、セファロメトリー上の重要なランドマークでもある。

Cartilages[編集]

Nasal cartilages

The nasal cartilages（英語版） are the septal（英語版）, lateral（英語版）, major alar（英語版）, and minor alar（英語版） cartilages.[8] The major and minor cartilages are also known as the greater and lesser alar cartilages. There is a narrow strip of cartilage called the vomeronasal cartilage（英語版） that lies between the vomer and the septal cartilage.[9] 鼻軟骨には、中隔軟骨、外側軟骨、大耳軟骨、小耳軟骨があります。鋤鼻軟骨と中隔軟骨の間には、鋤鼻軟骨と呼ばれる細い帯状の軟骨があります[9]。


The septal nasal cartilage（英語版）, extends from the nasal bones in the midline, to the bony part of the septum in the midline, posteriorly. It then passes along the floor of the nasal cavity.[10] The septum is quadrangular–the upper half is attached to the two lateral nasal cartilages（英語版）, which are fused to the dorsal septum in the midline. The septum is laterally attached, with loose ligaments, to the bony margin of the anterior nasal aperture（英語版）, while the inferior ends of the lateral cartilages are free (unattached). The three or four minor alar cartilage（英語版）s are adjacent to the lateral cartilages, held in the connective tissue membrane, that connects the lateral cartilages to the frontal process of the maxilla.

中隔軟骨は、正中線の鼻骨から、正中線の中隔の骨部分まで、後方に伸びている。中隔は四角形で、上半分は2つの外側鼻軟骨に付着しており、これらの軟骨は正中線で背側中隔に癒合している。中隔は緩い靭帯で前鼻孔の骨縁に横方向に付着しているが、外側軟骨の下端は遊離している（付着していない）。3～4個の小耳軟骨は外側軟骨に隣接し、結合組織膜で保持され、外側軟骨を上顎の前頭突起に連結している。


The nasal bones in the upper part of the nose are joined by the midline internasal suture. They join with the septal cartilage（英語版） at a junction known as the rhinion. The rhinion is the midline junction where the nasal bone meets the septal cartilage. From the rhinion to the apex, or tip, the framework is of cartilage. 鼻の上部にある鼻骨は、正中鼻骨間縫合によって結合されている。鼻骨は鼻中隔軟骨と結合し、鼻根と呼ばれる接合部で結合します。鼻骨は鼻中隔軟骨と接合しています。鼻骨から鼻尖（鼻先）までの骨格は軟骨でできています。


The major alar cartilage（英語版）s are thin, U-shaped plates of cartilage on each side of the nose that form the lateral and medial walls of the vestibule, known as the medial and lateral crura. The medial crura are attached to the septal cartilage, forming fleshy parts at the front of the nostrils on each side of the septum, called the medial crural footpods. The medial crura meet at the midline below the end of the septum to form the columella[11] and lobule. The lobule contains the tip of the nose and its base contains the nostrils.[3] At the peaks of the folds of the medial crura, they form the alar domes the tip-defining points of the nose, separated by a notch.[3] They then fold outwards, above and to the side of the nostrils forming the lateral crura.[12][2] The major alar cartilages are freely moveable and can respond to muscles to either open or constrict the nostrils.[13] 主要な耳介軟骨は、鼻の両側にあるU字型の薄い板状の軟骨で、内側十字部および外側十字部として知られる前庭の外側および内側の壁を形成しています。内側十字部は中隔軟骨に付着し、中隔の両側で鼻孔の前方に肉付きの良い部分を形成し、内側十字部足底と呼ばれます。内側鼻甲介は中隔の端の下の正中線で合流し、コルメラ[11]と小葉を形成する。小葉は鼻の先端を含み、その基部は鼻孔を含む。内側十字部のひだの頂点で、切り欠きで区切られた鼻の先端を定義する点である耳介ドームを形成する[3]。その後、外側十字部を形成する鼻孔の上方および側方で外側に折り畳まれる[12][2]。主要な耳介軟骨は自由に動くことができ、筋肉に反応して鼻孔を開いたり狭めたりすることができる[13]。


There is a reinforcing structure known as the nasal scroll that resists internal collapse from airflow pressure generated by normal breathing. This structure is formed by the junction between the lateral and major cartilages. Their edges interlock by one scrolling upwards and one scrolling inwards.[12][14] 鼻スクロールとして知られる補強構造があり、通常の呼吸によって発生する気流圧による内部崩壊に抵抗している。この構造は、外側軟骨と大軟骨の接合部によって形成される。その端は、一方が上方に、一方が内方にスクロールすることで噛み合っている[12][14]。

Muscles[編集]

The muscles of the nose are a subgroup of the facial muscles. They are involved in respiration and facial expression. The muscles of the nose include the procerus, nasalis, depressor septi nasi, levator labii superioris alaeque nasi, and the orbicularis oris of the mouth. As are all of the facial muscles, the muscles of the nose are innervated by the facial nerve and its branches.[3] Although each muscle is independent, the muscles of the nose form a continuous layer with connections between all the components of the muscles and ligaments, in the nasal part of a superficial muscular aponeurotic system（英語版） (SMAS).[3][15] The SMAS is continuous from the nasofrontal process to the nasal tip. It divides at level of the nasal valve into superficial and deep layers, each layer having medial and lateral components.[15] 鼻の筋肉は表情筋のサブグループである。呼吸と表情に関与する。鼻の筋肉には、広頚筋、鼻翼挙筋、上唇小帯筋、口輪筋が含まれる。すべての顔面筋と同様に、鼻の筋肉は顔面神経とその分枝によって支配されている。各筋肉は独立しているが、鼻の筋肉は、表在性筋腱膜系（SMAS）の鼻側部分において、筋肉および靭帯のすべての構成要素間の結合を伴う連続層を形成している。鼻弁の高さで表層と深層に分かれ、各層は内側と外側の成分を有する。


The procerus muscle produces wrinkling over the bridge of the nose, and is active in concentration and frowning. It is a prime target for Botox procedures in the forehead to remove the lines between the eyes.[3] 前頭筋は、鼻筋にしわを寄せ、集中したり、顔をしかめたりするときに活動します。眉間のシワを除去するための額のボトックス施術の主要な標的である[3]。


The nasalis muscle consists of two main parts: a transverse part called the compressor naris, and an alar part termed the dilator naris. The compressor naris muscle compresses the nostrils and may completely close them. The alar part, the dilator naris mainly consists of the dilator naris posterior, and a much smaller dilator naris anterior, and this muscle flares the nostrils. The dilator naris helps to form the upper ridge of the philtrum.[3] The anterior, and the posterior dilator naris, (the alar part of the nasalis muscle), give support to the nasal valves.[3] 鼻筋は主に2つの部分から構成されています：圧迫筋と呼ばれる横の部分と拡張筋と呼ばれる耳介の部分です。圧迫筋は鼻孔を圧迫し、完全に閉じることもある。鼻孔拡張筋は、主に鼻孔拡張筋後部と、より小さい鼻孔拡張筋前部からなり、この筋肉が鼻孔を広げます。鼻翼拡張筋は、鼻孔の上隆起を形成するのに役立っている[3]。前部拡張筋と後部拡張筋（鼻翼筋の距骨部）は、鼻弁を支持している[3]。


The depressor septi nasi may sometimes be absent or rudimentary. The depressor septi pulls the columella, the septum, and the tip of the nose downwards. At the start of inspiration, this muscle tenses the nasal septum and with the dilator naris widens the nostrils.[3]

副鼻腔圧子（depressor septi nasi）は時に欠如していたり、初歩的であったりする。中隔下制筋は、コルメラ、中隔、および鼻先を下方に引っ張る。吸気開始時、この筋肉は鼻中隔を緊張させ、鼻孔拡張筋とともに鼻孔を広げる[3]。


The levator labii superioris alaeque nasi divides into a medial and a lateral slip. The medial slip blends into the perichondrium of the major alar cartilage and its overlying skin. The lateral slip blends at the side of the upper lip with the levator labii superioris, and with the orbicularis oris. The lateral slip raises the upper lip and deepens and increases the curve above the nasolabial furrow. The medial slip pulls the lateral crus upwards and modifies the curve of the furrow around the alae, and dilates the nostrils.[3] 上唇挙筋は、内側滑走と外側滑走に分かれる。内側の滑膜は、大耳介軟骨の軟骨周囲とその上の皮膚になじむ。外側のスリップは、上唇の側面で上唇挙筋および口輪筋となじんでいる。外側スリップは上唇を引き上げ、鼻唇溝上部のカーブを深くし、大きくします。内側スリップは、外側頭蓋を上方に引き上げ、鼻唇溝周囲のカーブを修正し、鼻孔を拡張させる。

Soft tissue[編集]

The skin of the nose varies in thickness along its length.[3] From the glabella to the bridge (the nasofrontal angle), the skin is thick, fairly flexible, and mobile. It tapers to the bridge where it is thinnest and least flexible as it is closest to the underlying bone. From the bridge until the tip of the nose the skin is thin. The tip is covered in skin that is as thick as the top section, and has many large sebaceous glands.[3][13] The thickness of the skin varies but is still separated from the underlying bones and cartilage by four layers – a superficial fatty layer（英語版）; a fibromuscular layer continued from the SMAS（英語版）; a deep fatty layer, and the periosteum.[3] 鼻の皮膚はその長さによって厚さが異なる[3]。鼻唇から鼻梁（鼻前頭角部）にかけては、皮膚は厚く、かなり柔軟で可動性がある。骨に最も近く、最も薄く、最も柔軟性に欠けるブリッジに向かって、皮膚は細くなる。ブリッジから鼻先までは皮膚が薄い。皮膚の厚さは様々であるが、表在性脂肪層、SMASから続く線維筋層、深在性脂肪層、骨膜の4つの層によって、土台となる骨や軟骨から隔てられている[3][13]。


Other areas of soft tissue are found where there is no support from cartilage; these include an area around the sides of the septum – the paraseptal area – an area around the lateral cartilages, an area at the top of the nostril, and an area in the alae.[3] 軟部組織の他の領域は、軟骨による支えがない場所に存在する。これらには、中隔の両側周辺の領域（副中隔領域）、外側軟骨周辺の領域、鼻孔上部の領域、および耳介の領域が含まれる[3]。

External nose[編集]

The nasal root is the top of the nose that attaches the nose to the forehead.[13] The nasal root is above the bridge（英語版） and below the glabella, forming an indentation known as the nasion（英語版） at the frontonasal suture where the frontal bone meets the nasal bones.[16] The nasal dorsum also known as the nasal ridge is the border between the root and the tip of the nose, which in profile can be variously shaped.[17] The ala of the nose (ala nasi, "wing of the nose"; plural alae) is the lower lateral surface of the external nose, shaped by the alar cartilage and covered in dense connective tissue.[1] The alae flare out to form a rounded eminence around the nostril.[17] Sexual dimorphism is evident in the larger nose of the male. This is due to the increased testosterone that thickens the brow ridge and the bridge of the nose making it wider.[18] 鼻根は、鼻を額に付着させる鼻の頂部である。[13] 鼻根は、鼻梁の上方で口蓋垂の下方にあり、前頭骨と鼻骨が接する前頭鼻縫合部で鼻根として知られるくぼみを形成している[16] 鼻背は鼻隆起としても知られ、鼻根と鼻先の境界であり、横顔では様々な形をしている。[17]鼻甲介（ala nasi、「鼻の翼」、複数形alae）は、鼻の外側の下側の表面で、耳介軟骨によって形成され、密な結合組織で覆われている。これは男性ホルモンの増加により、眉尾根と鼻筋が太くなるためである[18]。


Differences in the symmetry（英語版） of the nose have been noted in studies. Asymmetry（英語版） is predominantly seen in wider left-sided nasal and other facial features.[19] 鼻の対称性の違いが研究で指摘されている。非対称性は、鼻や他の顔貌の左側が広い場合に多くみられる[19]。

Nasal cavity[編集]

詳細は「Nasal cavity」を参照
Anatomy of the nasal cavity. Nasal-associated lymphoid tissue（英語版） labelled NALT

The nasal cavity is the large internal space of the nose, and is in two parts – the nasal vestibule and the nasal cavity proper.[2] The nasal vestibule is the frontmost part of the nasal cavity, enclosed by cartilages. The vestibule is lined with skin, hair follicles, and a large number of sebaceous glands.[1][2] A mucous ridge known as the limen nasi separates the vestibule from the rest of the nasal cavity and marks the change from the skin of the vestibule to the respiratory epithelium（英語版） of the rest of the nasal cavity.[2] This area is also known as a mucocutaneous junction（英語版） and has a dense microvasculature（英語版）.[20] 鼻前庭は鼻腔の最前部にあり、軟骨に囲まれている。前庭は、皮膚、毛包、および多数の皮脂腺で裏打ちされている[1][2]。リメン・ナシとして知られる粘液性の隆起が、前庭を鼻腔の他の部分から分離し、前庭の皮膚から鼻腔の他の部分の呼吸上皮への変化を示している[2]。この領域は粘膜皮膚接合部としても知られ、密集した微小血管系を有する[20]。


The nasal cavity is divided into two cavities by the nasal septum, and each is accessed by an external nostril.[13][1] The division into two cavities enables the functioning of the nasal cycle（英語版） that slows down the conditioning process of the inhaled air.[21] At the back of the nasal cavity there are two openings, called choana（英語版）e (also posterior nostrils), that give entrance to the nasopharynx, and rest of the respiratory tract.[1]

鼻腔は鼻中隔によって2つの空洞に分けられ、それぞれに外鼻孔がある[13][1]。2つの空洞に分けられることで、吸入された空気の調整過程を遅らせる鼻サイクルが機能する。

On the outer wall of each cavity are three shell-like bones called conchae, arranged as superior（英語版）, middle（英語版） and inferior nasal conchae. Below each concha is a corresponding superior, middle, and inferior nasal meatus（英語版）, or passage.[1] Sometimes when the superior concha is narrow, a fourth supreme nasal concha is present situated above and sharing the space with the superior concha.[22] The term concha refers to the actual bone; when covered by soft tissue and mucosa, and functioning, a concha is termed a turbinate.[3] Excessive moisture as tears collected in the lacrimal sac（英語版） travel down the nasolacrimal ducts where they drain into the inferior meatus in the nasal cavity.[23]


それぞれの腔の外壁には、上鼻甲介、中鼻甲介、下鼻甲介として配置された、甲介と呼ばれる3つの貝殻のような骨がある。上鼻甲介が狭い場合には、上鼻甲介の上方に位置し、上鼻甲介と空間を共有する第4の上鼻甲介が存在することもある。[22]鼻甲介という用語は、実際の骨を指す。軟部組織と粘膜に覆われ、機能している場合、鼻甲介は鼻甲介と呼ばれる[3]。涙嚢に溜まった涙の過剰な水分は、鼻涙管を通り、鼻腔の下肉孔に排出される[23]。


Most of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses is lined with respiratory epithelium（英語版） as nasal mucosa（英語版）. In the roof of each cavity is an area of specialised olfactory epithelium（英語版）. This region is about 5 square cm, covering the superior concha, the cribriform plate, and the nasal septum.[24]

鼻腔と副鼻腔の大部分は、鼻粘膜として呼吸器上皮で覆われている。各空洞の天井には、特殊な嗅上皮の領域がある。この領域は約5平方cmで、上錐体、篩状板、鼻中隔を覆っている[24]。


The nasal cavity has a nasal valve area that includes an external nasal valve, and an internal nasal valve.[25] The external nasal valve is bounded medially by the columella, laterally by the lower lateral nasal cartilage（英語版）, and posteriorly by the nasal sill.[26] The internal nasal valve is bounded laterally by the caudal border of the upper lateral cartilage, medially by the dorsal nasal septum, and inferiorly by the anterior border of the inferior turbinate.[27] The internal nasal valve is the narrowest region of the nasal cavity and is the primary site of nasal resistance.[28] The valves regulate the airflow and resistance. Air breathed in is forced to pass through the narrow internal nasal valve, and then expands as it moves into the nasal cavity. The sudden change in the speed and pressure of the airflow creates turbulence that allows optimum contact with the respiratory epithelium for the necessary warming, moisturising, and filtering. The turbulence also allows movement of the air to pass over the olfactory epithelium and transfer odour information.[3] The angle of the valve between the septum and the sidewall needs to be sufficient for unobstructed airflow, and this is normally between 10 and 15 degrees.[29][3]

鼻腔には、外鼻弁と内鼻弁を含む鼻弁領域がある。[25] 外鼻弁は、内側がコルメラ、外側が下側鼻軟骨、後方が鼻柱によって境界を接している。[26] 内鼻弁は、横方向には上外側軟骨の尾側境界線、内側には鼻中隔背側境界線、下側には下鼻甲介の前縁で囲まれている。 [27] 内鼻弁は鼻腔で最も狭い部位であり、鼻腔抵抗の主要部位である。吸い込まれた空気は、狭い内鼻弁を通過するように強制され、鼻腔内に移動するにつれて膨張する。気流の速度と圧力の急激な変化により乱流が生じ、呼吸器上皮との最適な接触が可能になり、必要な加温、保湿、ろ過が行われる。乱気流はまた、空気の動きが嗅覚上皮の上を通過し、臭いの情報を伝達することを可能にする[3]。中隔と側壁の間の弁の角度は、空気の流れを妨げないために十分である必要があり、これは通常10～15度である[29][3]。


The borders of each nasal cavity are a roof, floor, medial wall (the septum), and lateral wall.[2][3] The middle part of the roof of the nasal cavity is composed of the horizontal, perforated cribriform plate（英語版） of the ethmoid bone, through which pass sensory fibres of the olfactory nerve into the cranial cavity.[2]

それぞれの鼻腔の境界は、屋根、床、内側の壁（隔壁）、および外側の壁である[2][3]。鼻腔の屋根の中央部は、篩骨（しこつ）の水平な穴のあいた篩状板で構成されており、この篩状板を通って嗅神経の感覚線維が頭蓋腔に入る[2]。

Paranasal sinuses[編集]

詳細は「Paranasal sinuses」を参照
Paranasal sinuses

The mucosa（英語版） that lines the nasal cavity extends into its chambers, the paranasal sinuses.[13] The nasal cavity and the paranasal sinuses are referred to as the sinonasal tract or sinonasal region, and its anatomy is recognised as being unique and complex.[30][31] Four paired paranasal sinuses – the frontal sinus, the sphenoid sinus（英語版）, the ethmoid sinus（英語版） and the maxillary sinus（英語版） drain into regions of the nasal cavity. The sinuses are air-filled extensions of the nasal cavity into the cranial bones.[13] The frontal sinuses are located in the frontal bone; the sphenoidal sinuses in the sphenoid bone; the maxillary sinuses in the maxilla; and the ethmoidal sinuses in the ethmoid bone.[2][13] 鼻腔と副鼻腔は副鼻腔管または副鼻腔領域と呼ばれ、その解剖学的構造は独特で複雑であることが知られている。前頭洞は前頭骨に、蝶形骨洞は蝶形骨に、上顎洞は上顎骨に、篩骨洞は篩骨にそれぞれ位置する[2][13]。

A narrow opening called a sinus ostium from each of the paranasal sinuses allows drainage into the nasal cavity. The maxillary sinus is the largest of the sinuses and drains into the middle meatus. Most of the ostia open into the middle meatus and the anterior ethmoid, that together are termed the ostiomeatal complex.[32] Adults have a high concentration of cilia in the ostia. The cilia in the sinuses beat towards the openings into the nasal cavity. The increased numbers of cilia and the narrowness of the sinus openings allow for an increased time for moisturising, and warming.[32] それぞれの副鼻腔から副鼻腔口と呼ばれる狭い開口部があり、鼻腔への排水が可能である。上顎洞は副鼻腔の中で最も大きく、中肉洞に排出される。ほとんどの鼻副鼻腔は中肉洞と前篩骨洞に開口しており、これらを合わせて鼻副鼻腔複合体と呼ぶ。副鼻腔の繊毛は鼻腔への開口部に向かって拍動する。繊毛の数が増え、副鼻腔の開口部が狭くなることで、保湿と保温の時間が長くなる。 A na

Nose shape[編集]

Nose shapes used in Topinard's（英語版） nasal index.

The shape of the nose varies widely due to differences in the nasal bone shapes and formation of the bridge of the nose. Anthropometric（英語版） studies have importantly contributed to craniofacial surgery（英語版）, and the nasal index is a recognised anthropometric index used in nasal surgery.[33]

鼻の形は、鼻骨の形や鼻梁の形成の違いにより大きく異なる。人体計測学的研究は頭蓋顔面外科手術に重要な貢献をしており、鼻指数は鼻の外科手術で使用される人体計測指数として認知されている[33]。

ポール・トピナード（Paul Topinard）は、民族を分類する方法として鼻指数を開発した。この指数は、鼻の高さに対する鼻の幅の比率に基づいている[34]。鼻の寸法は、鼻の形態を5つのタイプに分類するためにも使用される：Hyperleptorrhineは非常に細長い鼻で、鼻指数は40～55である[35]。Leptorrhineは細長い鼻で、鼻指数は55～70である[35]。Platyrrhineは、指数が85-99-9の短くて広い鼻である。第5のタイプは、指数が100を超えるハイパープラチルヒ型である[35]。民族間の鼻の大きさの違いは、その土地の気温や湿度に対する進化的適応の違いに起因すると考えられる。また、性淘汰のような他の要因も鼻の形における民族間の差異を説明するかもしれない。[36]

鼻の変形には、パグノーズやサドルノーズなどの名前がついているものがある。パグノーズの特徴は、鼻尖から余分な組織が鼻の他の部分と比例していないことである。鼻梁が低く未発達であることも顕著である[37]。鼻梁の崩壊を伴う鞍鼻変形は、ほとんどが鼻の外傷と関連しているが、ハンセン病を含む他の疾患によって引き起こされることもある[38][39]。

ウェルナー症候群は、早老に関連する疾患で、鼻の挟み込みによる「鳥のような」外見を引き起こす[40]。

ダウン症候群では、鼻梁が平坦化した小さな鼻が一般的である。これは、片方または両方の鼻骨がないこと、鼻骨が短縮していること、鼻骨が正中線で癒合していないことが原因である[41][42]。 Paul Topinard（英語版） developed the nasal index（英語版） as a method of classifying ethnic groups. The index is based on the ratio of the breadth of the nose to its height.[34] The nasal dimensions are also used to classify nasal morphology into five types: Hyperleptorrhine is a very long, narrow nose with a nasal index of 40 to 55.[35] Leptorrhine describes a long, narrow nose with an index of 55–70.[35] Mesorrhine is a medium nose with an index of 70–85. Platyrrhine is a short, broad nose with an index of 85–99·9. The fifth type is the hyperplatyrrhine having an index of more than 100.[35] Variations in nose size between ethnicities may be attributed to differing evolutionary adaptations to local temperatures and humidity. Other factors such as sexual selection may also account for ethnic differences in nose shape. [36]

Some deformities of the nose are named, such as the pug nose and the saddle nose（英語版）. The pug nose is characterised by excess tissue from the apex that is out of proportion to the rest of the nose. A low and underdeveloped nasal bridge may also be evident.[37] A saddle nose deformity involving the collapse of the bridge of the nose is mostly associated with trauma to the nose but can be caused by other conditions including leprosy.[38][39]

Werner syndrome, a condition associated with premature aging, causes a "bird-like" appearance due to pinching of the nose.[40]

Down syndrome commonly presents a small nose with a flattened nasal bridge. This can be due to the absence of one or both nasal bones, shortened nasal bones, or nasal bones that have not fused in the midline.[41][42]

Blood supply and drainage[編集]

Supply[編集]

Carotid arteries
Multiple arteries supply blood to the nose; the nasal septum, shown here is supplied by the anterior and posterior ethmoidal arteries at top; the sphenopalantine artery at the back, and the anterior ethoidal artery and the superior labial artery over the cartilage. These arteries join at Kiesselbach's plexus.

The blood supply to the nose is provided by branches of the ophthalmic（英語版）, maxillary, and facial arteries – branches of the carotid arteries. Branches of these arteries anastomose（英語版） to form plexus（英語版）es in and under the nasal mucosa.[3] In the septal region Kiesselbach's plexus is a common site of nosebleeds.

Branches of the ophthalmic artery – the anterior and posterior ethmoidal arteries supply the roof, upper bony septum, and ethmoidal and frontal sinuses. The anterior ethmoidal artery also helps to supply the lower septal cartilage.[3] Another branch is the dorsal nasal artery a terminal branch that supplies the skin of the alae and dorsum.

Branches of the maxillary artery include the greater palatine artery; the sphenopalatine artery and its branches – the posterior lateral nasal arteries（英語版） and posterior septal nasal branches（英語版）; the pharyngeal branch; and the infraorbital artery and its branches – the superior anterior and posterior alveolar arteries.

The sphenopalatine artery and the ethmoid arteries supply the outer walls of the nasal cavity. There is additional supply from a branch of the facial artery – the superior labial artery. The sphenopalantine artery is the artery primarily responsible for supplying the nasal mucosa.[3]

The skin of the alae is supplied by the septal and lateral nasal branches of the facial artery.[3] The skin of the outer parts of the alae and the dorsum of the nose are supplied by the dorsal nasal artery a branch of the ophthalmic artery, and the infraorbital branch of the maxillary arteries.[3]

Drainage[編集]

Veins of the nose include the angular vein that drains the side of the nose, receiving lateral nasal veins from the alae. The angular vein joins with the superior labial vein. Some small veins from the dorsum of the nose drain to the nasal arch（英語版） of the frontal vein（英語版） at the root of the nose.

In the posterior region of the cavity, specifically in the posterior part of the inferior meatus is a venous plexus（英語版） known as Woodruff's plexus（英語版）.[43] This plexus is made up of large thin-walled veins with little soft tissue such as muscle or fiber. The mucosa of the plexus is thin with very few structures.[44]

Lymphatic drainage[編集]

From different areas of the nose superficial lymphatic vessel（英語版）s run with the veins, and deep lymphatic vessels travel with the arteries.[45] Lymph drains from the anterior half of the nasal cavity, including both the medial and lateral walls,[2] to join that of the external nasal skin to drain into the submandibular lymph nodes（英語版）.[2][3] The rest of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses all drain to the upper deep cervical lymph nodes（英語版）, either directly or through the retropharyngeal lymph nodes.[3] The back of the nasal floor probably drains to the parotid lymph nodes.[3]

Nerve supply[編集]

The nerve supply to the nose and paranasal sinuses comes from two branches of the trigeminal nerve (CN V): the ophthalmic nerve (CN V1), the maxillary nerve (CN V2), and branches from these.[3][13]

In the nasal cavity, the nasal mucosa is divided in terms of nerve supply into a back lower part (posteroinferior), and a frontal upper part (anterosuperior). The posterior part is supplied by a branch of the maxillary nerve – the nasopalatine nerve（英語版）, which reaches the septum. Lateral nasal branches of the greater palatine nerve supply the lateral wall. [13]

The frontal upper part is supplied from a branch of the ophthalmic nerve – the nasociliary nerve（英語版）, and its branches – the anterior and posterior ethmoidal nerves.[13]

Most of the external nose – the dorsum, and the apex are supplied by the infratrochlear nerve（英語版）, (a branch of the nasociliary nerve).[3][13] The external branch of the anterior ethmoidal nerve also supplies areas of skin between the root and the alae.[13]

The alae of the nose are supplied by nasal branches of CN V2, the infraorbital nerve, and internal nasal branches of infraorbital nerve（英語版） that supply the septum and the vestibule.[46][13]

The maxillary sinus（英語版） is supplied by superior alveolar nerves（英語版） from the maxillary and infraorbital nerves.[13][47] The frontal sinus is supplied by branches of the supraorbital nerve.[13] The ethmoid sinus（英語版）es are supplied by anterior and posterior ethmoid branches of the nasociliary nerve.[13] The sphenoid sinus（英語版） is supplied by the posterior ethmoidal nerves.[13]

Movement[編集]

The muscles of the nose are supplied by branches of the facial nerve. The nasalis muscle is supplied by the buccal branches（英語版）. It may also be supplied by one of the zygomatic branches（英語版）. The procerus is supplied by temporal branches of the facial nerve（英語版） and lower zygomatic branches; a supply from the buccal branch has also been described. The depressor septi is innervated by the buccal branch, and sometimes by the zygomatic branch, of the facial nerve. The levator labii superioris alaeque nasi is innervated by zygomatic and superior buccal branches of the facial nerve.[3]

Smell[編集]

「Vomeronasal receptor」も参照

The sense of smell is transmitted by the olfactory nerves.[3] Olfactory nerves are bundles of very small unmyelinated axons that are derived from olfactory receptor neurons in the olfactory mucosa（英語版）. The axons are in varying stages of maturity, reflecting the constant turnover of neurons in the olfactory epithelium. A plexiform network is formed in the lamina propria, by the bundles of axons that are surrounded by olfactory ensheathing cells. In as many as twenty branches, the bundled axons cross the cribriform plate and enter the overlying olfactory bulb ending as glomeruli. Each branch is enclosed by an outer dura mater that becomes continuous with the nasal periosteum.[3]

Autonomic supply[編集]

The nasal mucosa in the nasal cavity is also supplied by the autonomic nervous system.[3] Postganglionic nerve fibers（英語版） from the deep petrosal nerve（英語版） join with preganglionic nerve fibers（英語版） from the greater petrosal nerve（英語版） to form the nerve of the pterygoid canal（英語版）. Sympathetic postganglionic fibers are distributed to the blood vessels of the nose. Postganglionic parasympathetic fibres derived from the pterygopalatine ganglion provide the secretomotor（英語版） supply to the nasal mucous glands, and are distributed via branches of the maxillary nerves.[3]

Development[編集]

The developing head（英語版） at about four weeks. The olfactory pit can be seen at the top.

Development of the nose[編集]

In the early development of the embryo, neural crest cells migrate to form the mesenchymal tissue as ectomesenchyme（英語版） of the pharyngeal arches. By the end of the fourth week, the first pair of pharyngeal arches form five facial prominences or processes - an unpaired frontonasal process（英語版）, paired mandibular processes and paired maxillary processes.[48][49] The nose is largely formed by the fusion of these five facial prominences. The frontonasal process gives rise to the bridge of the nose. The medial nasal processes provide the crest and the tip of the nose, and the lateral nasal processes form the alae or sides of the nose. The frontonasal process is a proliferation of mesenchyme in front of the brain vesicles,[48] and makes up the upper border of the stomadeum.[49]

During the fifth week, the maxillary process（英語版）es increase in size and at the same time the ectoderm of the frontonasal process becomes thickened at its sides and also increases in size, forming the nasal placodes（英語版）. The nasal placodes are also known as the olfactory placodes. This development is induced by the ventral part of the forebrain.[48][49] In the sixth week, the ectoderm in each nasal placode invaginates to form an indented oval-shaped pit, which forms a surrounding raised ridge of tissue.[49] Each nasal pit forms a division between the ridges, into a lateral nasal process on the outer edge, and a medial nasal process on the inner edge.[48][49]

In the sixth week, the nasal pits deepen as they penetrate into the underlying mesenchyme.[48] At this time, the medial nasal processes migrate towards each other and fuse forming the primordium of the bridge of the nose and the septum.[49] The migration is helped by the increased growth of the maxillary prominences medially, which compresses the medial nasal processes towards the midline. Their merging takes place at the surface, and also at a deeper level.[48] The merge forms the intermaxillary segment（英語版）, and this is continuous with the rostral part of the nasal septum. The tips of the maxillary processes also grow and fuse with the intermaxillary process. The intermaxillary process gives rise to the philtrum of the upper lip.[48]

At the end of the sixth week, the nasal pits have deepened further and they fuse to make a large ectodermal nasal sac. This sac will be above and to the back of the intermaxillary process. Leading into the seventh week, the nasal sac floor and posterior wall grow to form a thickened plate-like ectodermal structure called the nasal fin.[49] The nasal fin separates the sac from the oral cavity. Within the fin, vacuoles develop that fuse with the nasal sac. This enlarges the nasal sac and at the same time thins the fin to a membrane - the oronasal membrane that separates the nasal pits from the oral cavity.[49] During the seventh week the oronasal membrane ruptures and disintegrates to form an opening - the single primitive choana. The intermaxillary segment extends posteriorly to form the primary palate, which makes up the floor of the nasal cavity.[49] During the eighth and ninth weeks, a pair of thin extensions form from the medial walls of the maxillary process. These extensions are called the palatine shelves that form the secondary palate.[48][49] The secondary palate will endochondrally ossify to form the hard palate - the end-stage floor of the nasal cavity. During this time, ectoderm and mesoderm of the frontonasal process produce the midline septum. The septum grows down from the roof of the nasal cavity and fuses with the developing palates along the midline. The septum divides the nasal cavity into two nasal passages opening into the pharynx through the definitive choanae.[48][49]

At ten weeks, the cells differentiate into muscle, cartilage, and bone. Problems at this stage of development can cause birth defects such as choanal atresia（英語版） (absent or closed passage), facial cleft（英語版）s and nasal dysplasia（英語版） (faulty or incomplete development)[50] or extremely rarely polyrrhinia the formation of a duplicate nose.[51]

Normal development（英語版） is critical because the newborn infant breathes through the nose for the first six weeks, and any nasal blockage will need emergency treatment to clear.[52]

Development of the paranasal sinuses[編集]

The four pairs of paranasal sinuses - the maxillary, ethmoid, sphenoid, and frontal, develop from the nasal cavity as invaginations extending into their named bones. Two pairs of sinuses form during prenatal development and two pairs form after birth. The maxillary sinuses are the first to appear during the fetal third month. They slowly expand within the maxillary bones and continue to expand throughout childhood. The maxillary sinuses form as invaginations from the nasal sac. The ethmoid sinuses appear in the fetal fifth month as invaginations of the middle meatus. The ethmoid sinuses do not grow into the ethmoid bone and do not completely develop until puberty.[49]

The sphenoid sinuses are extensions of the ethmoid sinuses into the sphenoid bones. They begin to develop around two years of age, and continue to enlarge during childhood.[13]

The frontal sinuses only develop in the fifth or sixth year of childhood, and continue expanding throughout adolescence. Each frontal sinus is made up of two independent spaces that develop from two different sources; one from the expansion of ethmoid sinuses into frontal bone, and the other develops from invagination. They never coalesce so drain independently.[49]

Function[編集]

Respiration[編集]

Air enters the upper respiratory tract through the nose. The nasal conchae can be seen in this image.

The nose is the first organ of the upper respiratory tract in the respiratory system. Its main respiratory function is the supply and conditioning, by warming, moisturising and filtering of particulates of inhaled air.[23] Nasal hair in the nostrils traps large particles preventing their entry into the lungs.[1]

The three positioned nasal conchae in each cavity provide four grooves as air passages, along which the air is circulated and moved to the nasopharynx.[53] The internal structures and cavities, including the conchae and paranasal sinuses form an integrated system for the conditioning of the air breathed in through the nose.[53] This functioning also includes the major role of the nasal mucosa（英語版）, and the resulting conditioning of the air before it reaches the lungs is important in maintaining the internal environment and proper functioning of the lungs.[54] The turbulence created by the conchae and meatuses optimises the warming, moistening, and filtering of the mucosa.[55] A major protective role is thereby provided by these structures of the upper respiratory tract, in the passage of air to the more delicate structures of the lower respiratory tract.[53]

Sneezing is an important protective reflex action initiated by irritation of the nasal mucosa（英語版） to expel unwanted particles through the mouth and nose.[56] Photic sneezing is a reflex brought on by different stimuli such as bright lights.[57] The nose is also able to provide sense information as to the temperature of the air being breathed.[58]

Variations in shape of the nose have been hypothesised to possibly be adaptive to regional differences in temperature and humidity, though they may also have been driven by other factors such as sexual selection.[59]

Sense of smell[編集]

The cells lining the nose involved in smell (olfaction) are shown here

The nose also plays the major part in the olfactory system（英語版）. It contains an area of specialised cells, olfactory receptor neurons responsible for the sense of smell (olfaction). Olfactory mucosa（英語版） in the upper nasal cavity, contains a type of nasal gland（英語版） called olfactory gland（英語版）s or Bowman's glands, which help in olfaction. The nasal conchae also help in olfaction function, by directing air-flow to the olfactory region.[55][60]

Speech[編集]

詳細は「Speech」を参照

Speech is produced with pressure from the lungs. This can be modified using airflow through the nose in a process called nasalisation. This involves the lowering of the soft palate to produce nasal vowel（英語版）s and consonants by allowing air to escape from both the nose and the mouth.[61] Nasal airflow is also used to produce a variety of click consonants called nasal click（英語版）s.[62] The large, hollow cavities of the paranasal sinuses act as resonating chambers that modify, and amplify speech and other vocal vibrations passing through them.[63][64]

Clinical significance[編集]

One of the most common medical conditions involving the nose is a nosebleed (epistaxis). Most nosebleeds occur in Kiesselbach's plexus, a vascular plexus in the lower front part of the septum involving the convergence of four arteries. A smaller proportion of nosebleeds that tend to be nontraumatic occur in Woodruff's plexus（英語版）. Woodruff's plexus is a venous plexus（英語版） of large thin-walled veins lying in the posterior part of the inferior meatus.[44]

Another common condition is nasal congestion, usually a symptom of infection, particularly sinusitis, or other inflammation of the nasal lining called rhinitis, including allergic rhinitis and nonallergic rhinitis. Chronic nasal obstruction resulting in breathing through the mouth can greatly impair or prevent the nostrils from flaring.[65] One of the causes of snoring is nasal obstruction,[66] and anti-snoring devices such as a nasal strip help to flare the nostrils and keep the airway open.[65] Nasal flaring, is usually seen in children when breathing is difficult.[67] Most conditions of nasal congestion also cause a loss of the sense of smell (anosmia). This may also occur in other conditions, for example following trauma, in Kallmann syndrome or Parkinson's disease. A blocked sinus ostium, an opening from a paranasal sinus, will cause fluid to accumulate in the sinus.

In children, the nose is a common site of foreign bodies.[68] The nose is one of the exposed areas that is susceptible to frostbite.[69]

Because of the special nature of the blood supply to the human nose and surrounding area, it is possible for retrograde infections from the nasal area to spread to the brain. For this reason, the area from the corners of the mouth to the bridge of the nose, including the nose and maxilla, is known as the danger triangle of the face（英語版）.[13]

Saddle nose（英語版） (congenital syphilis（英語版）)

Infections or other conditions that may result in destruction of, or damage to a part of the nose include rhinophyma（英語版）,[70] skin cancers particularly basal-cell carcinoma,[71] paranasal sinus and nasal cavity cancer（英語版）,[72] granulomatosis with polyangiitis,[38] syphilis,[73] leprosy,[39] recreational use of cocaine（英語版）,[74] chromium and other toxins.[75] The nose may be stimulated to grow in acromegaly, a condition caused by an excess of growth hormone.[76]

A common anatomic variant is an air-filled cavity within a concha known as a concha bullosa（英語版）.[77] In rare cases a polyp can form inside a bullosa.[78] Usually a concha bullosa is small and without symptoms but when large can cause obstruction to sinus drainage.[79]

Some drugs can be nasally administered（英語版）, including drug delivery to the brain（英語版）, and these include nasal spray（英語版）s and topical treatments.[58][80][81] The septal cartilage can be destroyed through the repeated inhalation of recreational drug（英語版）s such as cocaine. This, in turn, can lead to more widespread collapse of the nasal skeleton.[82]

Sneezing can transmit infections carried in the expelled droplets. This route is called either airborne transmission（英語版） or aerosol transmission.[83]

Surgical procedures[編集]

「Rhinoplasty」を参照
Prosthetic nose from 17th century Europe.

Badly positioned alar cartilages lack proper support, and can affect the function of the external nasal valve. This can cause breathing problems particularly during deep inhalation.[84] The surgical procedure to correct breathing problems due to disorders in the nasal structures is called a rhinoplasty（英語版）, and this is also the procedure used for a cosmetic surgery when it is commonly called a "nose job". For surgical procedures of rhinoplasty, the nose is mapped out into a number of subunits and segments（英語版）. This uses nine aesthetic nasal subunits and six aesthetic nasal segments. A septoplasty（英語版） is the specific surgery to correct a nasal septum deviation（英語版）.

A broken nose can result from trauma. Minor fractures may heal on their own. Surgery known as reduction（英語版） may be carried out on more severe breaks that cause dislocation.[85]

Several nasal procedures of the nose and paranasal sinuses can be carried out using minimally-invasive（英語版） nasal endoscopy（英語版）. These procedures aim to restore sinus ventilation, mucociliary clearance, and maintain the health of the sinus mucosa.[86]

Some non-nasal surgeries can also be carried out through the use of an endoscope that is entered through the nose. These endoscopic endonasal surgeries（英語版） are used to remove tumours from the front of the base of the skull.[87]

Swollen conchae can cause obstruction and nasal congestion, and may be treated surgically by a turbinectomy（英語版）.[88]

Society and culture[編集]

Some people choose to have cosmetic surgery (called a rhinoplasty（英語版）) to change the appearance of their nose. Nose piercings, such as in the nostril, septum, or bridge, are also common. In certain Asian countries such as China, Japan, South Korea, Malaysia, Thailand and Bangladesh, rhinoplasties are commonly carried out to create a more developed nose bridge or a "high nose".[89] Similarly, "DIY nose lifts" in the form of re-usable cosmetic items have become popular and are sold in many Asian countries such as China, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Sri Lanka and Thailand.[90][91][92] A high-bridged nose has been a common beauty ideal in many Asian cultures dating back to the beauty ideals of ancient China and India.[93][94]

In New Zealand, nose pressing ("hongi") is a traditional greeting originating among the Māori people.[95] However it is now generally confined to certain traditional celebrations.[96]

The Hanazuka monument enshrines the mutilated noses of at least 38,000 Koreans killed during the Japanese invasions of Korea from 1592 to 1598.[97]

Nose picking is a common, mildly taboo habit. Medical risks include the spread of infections, nosebleeds and, rarely, perforation of the nasal septum. When it becomes compulsive it is termed rhinotillexomania. The wiping of the nose with the hand, commonly referred to as the "allergic salute（英語版）", is also mildly taboo and can result in the spreading of infections as well. Habitual as well as fast or rough nose wiping may also result in a crease (known as a transverse nasal crease（英語版） or groove) running across the nose, and can lead to permanent physical deformity observable in childhood and adulthood.[98][99]

Nose fetishism（英語版） (or nasophilia) is the sexual partialism for the nose.[100]

Neanderthals[編集]

Clive Finlayson（英語版） of the Gibraltar Museum said the large Neanderthal noses were an adaptation to the cold,[101] Todd C. Rae of the American Museum of Natural History said primate and arctic animal studies have shown sinus size reduction in areas of extreme cold rather than enlargement in accordance with Allen's rule.[102] Therefore, Todd C. Rae concludes that the design of the large and prognathic Neanderthal nose was evolved for the hotter climate of the Middle East and Africa and remained unchanged when they entered Europe.[102]

Miquel Hernández of the Department of Animal Biology at the University of Barcelona said the "high and narrow nose of Eskimos and Neanderthals" is an "adaptation to a cold and dry environment", since it contributes to warming and moisturizing the air and the "recovery of heat and moisture from expired air".[103]

関連項目[編集]

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