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利用者:Dassaim/シンガポールとシンガポールの水問題（下書き）

シンガポールとマレーシアの水問題とは、シンガポールがマレーシアから輸入している水に関する問題のこと。シンガポールは水資源が乏しく、マレーシアからの輸入に大きく水資源を頼っている。シンガポールの独立以降、水の供給に関して合意が結ばれているもののマレーシア側は数度に渡り値上げの交渉を行なっており、政治上、外交上の問題となっている[1]。

Both Singapore and Malaysia have a conflict over water supplies ever since Singapore was separated from Malaysia in 1965.[1]

1965年にシンガポールがマレーシアから分離独立して以降、水の供給が両国間で重大な問題となっている。[1]

To ensure sufficient water supply in the rapidly modernising colonial city of Singapore during the 1900s.


In 1910, the municipal leadership of Singapore and Sultan Ibrahim of the state and territories of Johor in neighbouring Malaya signed an agreement that allowed Singapore to rent land in Johor and use its water for free.

1910年に、シンガポール州の首長と

The Municipal Water Department of Singapore, under David J. Murnane, began importing raw water from Gunong Pulai in 1927 and filtered water on 31 December 1929. Since then, several water agreements had been signed between two countries.

History[編集]

The 1927 Agreement[編集]

The first water agreement was signed between Sultan Ibrahim II the Sultan of Johor and the Municipal Commissioners of the Town of Singapore on 5 December 1927, under the Legislative Council of the Straits Settlements. It is no longer in force. Singapore was allowed to rent 8.5 km2 of land in Gunong Pulai in the Malaysian state of Johor for supplying raw water, for the price of 30 sen per 4,047 sqm as annual rental fees but the cost of water was zero.[2] An additional 64.7 km2 of land in Johor was set aside for possible further use, with additional fees. For its part, Johor could have 3,637 cubic metres daily of treated water from Singapore at a rate of 25 sen per 4.55 cu m, with a provision for an increase after 1929.[2]

1927年の合意[編集]

最初の水の供給に関する合意は1927年にジョホールのスルタンイブラヒム2世とシンガポール州の首長の間で1927年12月5日に海峡合意に関する立法協議会のもとで結ばれた。

この合意によりシンガポールは未処理の水の供給のために、マレーシアのジョホールバル州グノンプライに8.5km2の土地を4,047立方メートルあたり30センで借り受けることとなった。ただし、水そのものの価格はかからなかった[2]。その後、ジョホール州の64.7km2の土地が提供された。見返りとしてジョホール州は1日あたり3,637立方メートルの処理済みの水を4.55立方メートルあたり25セントで購入する権利を得た[2]。

The 1961 Agreement[編集]

On 1 September 1961, the Federation of Malaya signed an agreement giving Singapore the right to draw up to 86 million英ガロン (390,000 m3) of water per day collectively from the Tebrau River, the Skudai River, the Pontian Reservoir, and the Gunung Pulai Reservoir, with effect through 2011. Under this agreement, Singapore to pay annual rent of RM5 per acre for the land, as well as 3 sen for every 1,000 gallons of raw water drawn.[2] In return, Singapore to supply Johor daily with treated water of up to 12 percent of the raw water drawn, with a minimum of 18,184 cu m, and at the price of 50 cents per 1,000 gallons.[2] The agreement outlines a possible review in 25 years.

1961年の合意[編集]

1961年9月1日、マラヤ連邦はシンガポール対して テブロー川とスクダイ川、ポンチャン貯水池、グンナンプライ貯水池から合計で86 million英ガロン (390,000 m3)の水を取得する権利を保証する合意に調印した。この合意は2011年まで有効なものであった。この合意の内容は、シンガポールは年間1エーカーあたり5リンギットに加えて、取得した水1,000ガロンあたり3セントを支払う内容であった[2]。この合意は25年ごとの見直しの記述があった。

The 1962 Agreement[編集]

On 29 September 1962, a further agreement was signed providing Singapore the right to draw up to 250 million英ガロン (1,100,000 m3) per day from the Johor River, with effect until 2061. Both agreements stipulated the price of 3 Malaysian cents per 1,000英ガロン (4,500 L). Under the agreement, Singapore pays rent on the land “at the standard rate applicable to building lots on town land”, and follows water rates and prices stated in the 1961 agreement with the provision of price review possible in 25 years.[2]

1986 and 1987, the 25-year mark for the two agreements.

Johor decides not to review the prices under the agreement and further agrees that neither country can unilaterally raise the price of water.[2]

1963年の合意[編集]

1962年9月29日に追加の合意が調印され、


The 1990 Agreement[編集]

In 1994, Linggiu Reservoir was built upstream of the Johor River and collects and releases rainwater. This pushes seawater back into the sea, ensuring that the river water is not too salty to be treated. It is operated by the Public Utilities Board (PUB) of Singapore.[3] The agreement has been further supplementary to the 1962 agreement. The Separation Agreement signed between Singapore and Malaysia on 7 August 1965 guaranteed the water agreements from 1961 and 1962 and grant Singapore rights to the use of water originating on the Malaysia side of border till 2061.[4]

Conflicts[編集]

On 5 July 2018, the Malaysian government has stated that the agreements were signed in a different time and that the price should increase.[5] It cites the example of water sold by China to Hong Kong in the past, which was approximately US$5.8 per 1,000英ガロン (4,500 L).[6] However, Singapore claimed that this price comparison is not fair because while Hong Kong has borne the cost of constructing the infrastructure and China has borne the cost of maintaining to provide water to Hong Kong, Singapore paid for all the costs of the reservoirs in Johor, the dams, pipelines, plant, equipment, etc., and Singapore paid all costs of operating and maintaining the infrastructure.[1]

On 31 August 2011, the 1961 water agreement expired, and the waterworks and facilities were handed over to the Johor state government. The handover included the Skudai and Gunung Pulai water treatment plants, which were built by the Singapore's Public Utilities Board and managed by them for 50 years, as well as two pump houses in Pontian and Tebrau.[7]

The 1962 Water Agreement, which expires in 2061, entitles Singapore to draw up to 250 million gallons a day (mgd) of water from the Johor River.[8] Singapore pays 3 sen per thousand gallons of raw water and sells treated water back to Johor at 50 sen per thousand gallons, a fraction of the cost of treating the water.[2] There has been numerous disputes between the two nations over the fairness of the deal, with Malaysia arguing Singapore is an affluent nation profiting from Malaysia's water resources due to the deal, and Singapore arguing that its treatment of water and subsequent resale of said treated water to Malaysia is done at a generous price, as Singapore makes no economic profit off the resale due to the costs involved in refining the water.[要出典]

On 25 June 2018, Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamed stated his intentions of renegotiating the agreement with Singapore as he views the low price at which water is being exported to Singapore has resulted in Malaysia losing a significant amount of revenue.[9] Malaysia has threatened to cut off the water supply prematurely to pressure Singapore politically, a move that has sparked tensions between the two states.[要出典]

Johor River section in Kota Tinggi

Johor River pollution[編集]

Since early 2015, drought, pollution and large discharges to combat salinity have depleted water levels in Johor River dams to historic lows, forcing Johor to seek additional potable water supplies from Singapore on three occasions in 2015 and 2016 and to impose water rations for 85,000 residents and industrial users in April 2016.[10]

On 4 April 2017, the Johor River had become polluted after a reservoir at a bio-composite center burst, causing the contaminated water to flow into the water body.[11] This was one of the several pollutions in the river including the case on 4 April 2019 when high levels of ammonia were found in the river.[11] Singapore's Foreign Affairs Minister Vivian Balakrishnan on 8 May 2019 warned that the "biggest threat" of the Johor River was the lack of environmental protection and the current water treatments are drawing more water from the river than it can yield on a sustainable basis.[11] There were also growing concern that incidents such as Kim Kim River toxic pollution would be disastrous for both countries.[11]

See also[編集]

Further reading[編集]

References[編集]

  1. ^ a b c d LONG, JOEY (2001). “Desecuritizing the Water Issue in Singapore—Malaysia Relations”. Contemporary Southeast Asia 23 (3): 504–532. ISSN 0129-797X. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25798564. 
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j “The Water Chronicles - A Timeline of the Singapore-Malaysia Water Issue” (英語). The Independent Singapore News (2019年3月14日). 2022年2月16日閲覧。
  3. ^ "Finding ways to increase water supply from Johor River", The Straits Times, 17 January 2018
  4. ^ “The 1962 Johor-Singapore Water Agreement: Lessons Learned” (英語). thediplomat.com. 2022年2月17日閲覧。
  5. ^ “Johor menteri besar hopes to raise price of water the state sells to Singapore”. www.businesstimes.com.sg (2018年7月5日). 2022年2月16日閲覧。
  6. ^ Water Supplies Department of Hong Kong Annual Report 2010/11 - Optimising Water Supplies (3.11MB)
  7. ^ “1961 water agreement with Johor expires on Wednesday”. The Straits Times. 2011年9月22日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2011年10月14日閲覧。
  8. ^ “Malaysia to seek international arbitration if Singapore does not renegotiate water deal: Saifuddin” (英語). CNA. 2022年2月16日閲覧。
  9. ^ “Water supply deal with Singapore 'too costly', needs to be settled: Malaysia PM Mahathir”. Channel NewsAsia. Template:Cite webの呼び出しエラー：引数 accessdate は必須です。
  10. ^ “How Johor’s growing water woes could affect Singapore” (英語). TODAY. 2022年2月17日閲覧。
  11. ^ a b c d “Biggest threat to Johor River’s sustainability is lack of environmental protection: Vivian Balakrishnan” (英語). CNA. 2022年2月17日閲覧。
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