利用者:Cheapside/sandbox

「文化マルクス主義」翻訳中、2022年8月9日

「文化的マルクス主義」または「文化マルクス主義」という用語は、極右の反ユダヤ主義の流れにある陰謀論を指す。そこでは、英語で言うところのen:Western Marxismが、西洋文化を転覆させようとする学問的・知的な継続的策動の土台となっていると主張される。

この陰謀論は、現代の進歩主義運動諸派や、アイデンティティ政治、ポリティカル・コレクトネスがあるのは、フランクフルト学派ゆえであるという誤った見方を提示し、伝統保守主義のキリスト教的価値観を崩して、1960年代の文化的にリベラルな価値観で置き換えようとする文化戦争を計画的に進め、それを通じて西洋社会を意図的に転覆しようという動きが現に進行中であると主張している。

ナチズムにおける「文化ボルシェヴィズム」というプロパガンダ用語との類似が指摘されているが、現代の陰謀論の源は、1990年代の米国にある 元々は米国の政治的極右の中でも最も周辺的なところでしか用いられていなかった用語だが、2010年代にメインストリームの場でも用いられるようになり、その後、世界的に見られるようになっている。

「マルクス主義による文化戦争」という陰謀論は、右派の政治家や、原理主義の宗教指導者、主流の印刷媒体やテレビに出演する政治コメンテーターや、白人至上主義のテロリストによって喧伝されており、「オルタナ右翼の世界観にとって基本となる要素」であると位置づけられている。

なお、この陰謀論については学術的な分析が行われており、その結果、事実に基づく根拠というものは一切ないと結論されている。

Origins

Michael Minnicino and the LaRouche Movement

The essay New Dark Age: The Frankfurt School and 'Political Correctness by Michael Minnicino was the starting point for the contemporary conspiracy theory in the United States. Minnicino argued that late twentieth-century America had become a "New Dark Age" as a result of the abandonment of Judeo-Christian and Renaissance ideals, which he claimed had been replaced in modern art with a "tyranny of ugliness". He attributed this to an alleged plot to instill cultural pessimism in America, carried out in three stages by Georg Lukács, the Frankfurt School, and elite media figures and political campaigners.

According to Minnicino, there were two aspects of the Frankfurt School plan to destroy Western culture. Firstly, a cultural critique, by Theodor Adorno and Walter Benjamin, to used art and culture to promote alienation and replace Christianity with socialism. This included the development of opinion polling and advertising techniques to brainwash the populace and control political campaigning. Secondly, the plan supposedly included attacks on the traditional family structure by Herbert Marcuse and Erich Fromm to promote women's rights, sexual liberation, and polymorphous perversity to subvert patriarchal authority. Minnicino claimed the Frankfurt School was responsible for elements of the counterculture of the 1960s and a "psychedelic revolution", distributing hallucinogenic drugs to encourage sexual perversion and promiscuity.

After the 2011 Norway attacks, Minnicino repudiated his own essay, writing, "I still like to think that some of my research was validly conducted and useful. However, I see very clearly that the whole enterprise—and especially the conclusions—was hopelessly deformed by self-censorship and the desire to in some way support Mr. LaRouche’s crack-brained world-view."

Paul Weyrich and William Lind

In a speech to the Conservative Leadership Conference of the Civitas Institute in 1998, Paul Weyrich equated Cultural Marxism to political correctness. Paul Weyrich argued that "we have lost the culture war" and that "a legitimate strategy for us to follow is to look at ways to separate ourselves from the institutions that have been captured by the ideology of Political Correctness, or by other enemies of our traditional culture."

For the Free Congress Research and Education Foundation, Weyrich commissioned William Lind to write a history of Cultural Marxism, defined as "a brand of Western Marxism ... commonly known as 'multiculturalism' or, less formally, Political Correctness." In the speech The Origins of Political Correctness, Lind wrote, "If we look at it analytically, if we look at it historically, we quickly find out exactly what it is. Political correctness is cultural Marxism. It is Marxism translated from economic into cultural terms. It is an effort that goes back not to the 1960s and the Hippies and the peace movement, but back to World War I. If we compare the basic tenets of Political Correctness with classical Marxism, the parallels are very obvious."

According to Lind's analysis, Lukács and Gramsci aimed to subvert Western culture because it was an obstacle to the Marxist goal of proletarian revolution. According to Lind, the Frankfurt School under Max Horkheimer aimed to remove social inhibitions (and destroy Western culture) using four main strategies. First, Horkheimer's critical theory would undermine the authority of the traditional family and government institutions, while segregating society into opposing groups of victims and oppressors. Second, the concepts of the authoritarian personality and the F-scale, developed by Adorno, would be used to accuse Americans with right-wing views of having fascist principles. Third, the concept of polymorphous perversity would undermine Western culture by promoting free love and homosexuality. Lind said that Herbert Marcuse considered a coalition of "Blacks, students, feminist women, and homosexuals" as a feasible vanguard of cultural revolution in the 1960s. Marcuse's Repressive Tolerance is interpreted by Lind as an argument to silence the right, and allow only the left to be heard. Lind also wrote that Cultural Marxism was an example of fourth-generation warfare.

Pat Buchanan brought more attention among paleoconservatives to Weyrich and Lind's iteration of the conspiracy theory. Jérôme Jamin refers to Buchanan as the "intellectual momentum" of the conspiracy theory, and to Anders Breivik as the "violent impetus". Both of them relied on William Lind, who edited a multi-authored work called "Political Correctness: A Short History of an Ideology" that Jamin calls the core text that "has been unanimously cited as 'the' reference since 2004."

Historian Martin Jay wrote that Political Correctness: The Frankfurt School (1999), Lind's documentary of conservative counter-culture, was effective Cultural Marxism propaganda because it "spawned a number of condensed, textual versions, which were reproduced on a number of radical, right-wing [web] sites." He further writes:

These, in turn, led to a plethora of new videos, now available on YouTube, which feature an odd cast of pseudo-experts regurgitating exactly the same line. The message is numbingly simplistic: All the 'ills' of modern American culture, from feminism, affirmative action, sexual liberation, racial equality, multiculturalism and gay rights to the decay of traditional education, and even environmentalism, are ultimately attributable to the insidious intellectual influence of the members of the Institute for Social Research who came to America in the 1930s.

Interpretation of the Frankfurt School as a conspiracy

「Frankfurt School」も参照

Joseph Goebbels views the Degenerate Art exhibition. The Cultural Marxism conspiracy theory is often compared to the antisemitic Nazi propaganda about "cultural Bolshevism" and "degenerate art".

The conspiracy theory claims that an elite of Marxist theorists and Frankfurt School intellectuals are subverting Western society. While parts of the conspiracy theory make reference to actual thinkers and ideas selected from the Western Marxist tradition, they severely misrepresent the subject and give an exaggerated interpretation of their effective influence. In reality, a group of German Marxist scholars, the majority of whom were Jewish, founded the Institute for Social Research in Frankfurt in 1923, which came to be known as the Frankfurt School. In their research, they sought to explain the failure of the German Revolution of 1918–1919, why capitalism remained the economic system in Germany, and, eventually, why German workers turned to Nazism instead. After 1933, the majority of the Frankfurt School intellectuals relocated to the United States, where their theories had a limited impact on left-wing circles. While the influence of the Frankfurt School and Critical Theory are generally viewed by most political scientists to have had a considerable range within academia, they were directly in opposition to the theories promoted by postmodern philosophers, who are frequently identified by proponents of the conspiracy theory as leading examples of cultural Marxism. In addition, none of its members were part of any kind of international conspiracy to destroy Western civilization.

Academic Joan Braune explains that Cultural Marxism in the sense referred to by the conspiracy theorists never existed, and does not correspond to any historical school of thought. She also states that Frankfurt School scholars are referred to as "Critical Theorists", not "Cultural Marxists", and points out that, contrary to the claims of the conspiracy theory, postmodernism tends to be wary of or even hostile towards Marxism, including towards the grand narratives typically supported by Critical Theory.

The British scholar Stuart Jeffries noted that the theories promoted by the Frankfurt school had "negligible real-world impact", and have been criticized for what Jürgen Habermas called a "strategy of hibernation", noting that they were mostly content to complain about the world rather than attempting to change it. Jeffries wrote: "The Frankfurt conspiracy theory, which has captivated several alt-right figures including Trump, Jordan Peterson and the late Andrew Breitbart, founder of the eponymous news service, turned this history on its head. Rather than impotent professors issuing scarcely comprehensible jeremiads from the academy, the likes of Adorno, Horkheimer, Erich Fromm and Herbert Marcuse were a crack cadre of subversives, who, during their American exile, performed a cultural takedown to which 'Make America Great Again' is a belated riposte."

Terrorism

Anders Behring Breivik

The counterfeit police identity card used by Breivik to commit the 2011 Norway attacks, which he justified as defense against Cultural Marxism.

On July 22, 2011, Anders Breivik murdered 77 people in the 2011 Norway attacks. About 90 minutes before enacting the violence, Breivik e-mailed 1,003 people his manifesto 2083: A European Declaration of Independence and a copy of Political Correctness: A Short History of an Ideology. Cultural Marxism was the primary subject of Breivik's manifesto. Breivik wrote that the "sexually transmitted disease (STD) epidemic in Western Europe is a result of cultural Marxism", that "Cultural Marxism defines Muslims, feminist women, homosexuals, and some additional minority groups, as virtuous, and they view ethnic Christian European men as evil" and that the "European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) in Strasbourg is a cultural-Marxist-controlled political entity."

A number of other far-right terrorists have espoused the conspiracy theory. Jack Renshaw, a neo-Nazi child sex offender convicted of plotting the assassination of Labour MP Rosie Cooper, promoted the conspiracy theory in a video for the British National Party. John T. Earnest, the perpetrator of the 2019 Poway synagogue shooting, was inspired by white nationalist ideology. In an online manifesto, Earnest stated that he believed "every Jew is responsible for the meticulously planned genocide of the European race" through the promotion of "cultural Marxism and communism."

Reactions

Concerning the real-life political violence caused by the conspiracy theory, law professor Samuel Moyn wrote: "That 'cultural Marxism' is a crude slander, referring to something that does not exist, unfortunately does not mean actual people are not being set up to pay the price, as scapegoats, to appease a rising sense of anger and anxiety. And for that reason, 'cultural Marxism' is not only a sad diversion from framing legitimate grievances but also a dangerous lure in an increasingly unhinged moment."

Antisemitism

The author Matthew Rose wrote that arguments by the American neo-Nazi Francis Parker Yockey after World War II were an early example of the conspiracy theory.

According to Joan Braune, Paul Gottfried, William S. Lind and Kevin MacDonald are three of the main proponents of the Cultural Marxism conspiracy theory.

According to Samuel Moyn, "[t]he wider discourse around cultural Marxism today resembles nothing so much as a version of the [Jewish Bolshevism] myth updated for a new age." Maxime Dafaure likewise states that Cultural Marxism is a contemporary update of antisemitic conspiracy theories, such as the Nazi concept of "Cultural Bolshevism", and is directly associated with the concept of "Jewish Bolshevism". According to philosopher Slavoj Žižek, the term Cultural Marxism "plays the same structural role as that of the 'Jewish plot' in anti-Semitism: it projects (or rather, transposes) the immanent antagonism of our socio-economic life onto an external cause: what the conservative alt-right deplores as the ethical disintegration of our lives (feminism, attacks on patriarchy, political correctness, etc.) must have an external cause—because it cannot, for them, emerge out of the antagonisms and tensions of our own societies." Dominic Green wrote a conservative critique of conservatives' complaints about Cultural Marxism in Spectator USA, stating: "For the Nazis, the Frankfurter [sic] School and its vaguely Jewish exponents fell under the rubric of Kulturbolshewismus, 'Cultural Bolshevism.'"

Andrew Woods in the essay "Cultural Marxism and the Cathedral: Two Alt-Right Perspectives on Critical Theory" (2019), acknowledges comparisons to Cultural Bolshevism, but argues against the idea the modern conspiracy theory was derived from Nazi propaganda. He writes instead that its antisemitism is "profoundly American". In Commune magazine, Woods detailed a genealogy of the conspiracy theory beginning with the LaRouche movement.

Kevin MacDonald has written several anti-semitic texts centering on the Frankfurt School. MacDonald criticized Breivik's manifesto for not being more hostile to Jews.

Circulation in the alt-right

Neo-Nazi and white supremacists promoted the conspiracy and help expand its reach. Websites such as the American Renaissance have run articles with titles like "Cultural Marxism in Action: Media Matters Engineers Cancellation of Vdare.com Conference". The Daily Stormer regularly runs stories about "Cultural Marxism" with titles such as "Jewish Cultural Marxism is Destroying Abercrombie & Fitch", "Hollywood Strikes Again: Cultural Marxism through the Medium of Big Box-Office Movies" and "The Left-Center-Right Political Spectrum of Immigration = Cultural Marxism".

Neo-nazis associated with Stormfront have strategically used the Frankfurt School as a euphemism to refer to Jewish people more generally, in venues where more forthright anti-semitism would be censored or rejected.

Timothy Matthews criticized the Frankfurt School from an explicitly Christian right perspective in the Catholic weekly newspaper The Wanderer. According to Matthews, the Frankfurt School, under the influence of Satan, seeks to destroy the traditional Christian family using critical theory and Marcuse's concept of polymorphous perversity, thereby encouraging homosexuality and breaking down the patriarchal family. Andrew Woods wrote that the plot Matthews describes does not resemble the Frankfurt School so much as the alleged aims of communists in The Naked Communist by W. Cleon Skousen. Nonetheless, Matthews' account was circulated credulously by right-wing and alt-right news media as well as in far-right internet forums such including Stormfront.

Following the Norway attacks, the conspiracy was taken up by a number of far-right outlets and forums, including alt-right websites such as AltRight Corporation, InfoWars and VDARE which have promoted the conspiracy. The AltRight Corporation's website, altright.com, featured articles with titles such as "Ghostbusters and the Suicide of Cultural Marxism", "#3 — Sweden: The World Capital of Cultural Marxism" and "Beta Leftists, Cultural Marxism and Self-Entitlement". InfoWars ran numerous headlines such as "Is Cultural Marxism America's New Mainline Ideology?" VDARE ran similar articles with similar titles such as "Yes, Virginia (Dare) There Is A Cultural Marxism—And It's Taking Over Conservatism Inc."

Richard B. Spencer, head of the National Policy Institute, has promoted the conspiracy theory. Spencer's master's thesis was on the topic of Theodor Adorno.

Entering the mainstream

Rachel Busbridge, Benjamin Moffitt and Joshua Thorburn describe the conspiracy theory as being promoted by the far-right, but that it "has gained ground over the past quarter century" and conclude that "[t]hrough the lens of the Cultural Marxist conspiracy, however, it is possible to discern a relationship of empowerment between mainstream and fringe, whereby certain talking points and tropes are able to be transmitted, taken up and adapted by 'mainstream' figures, thus giving credence and visibility to ideologies that would have previously been constrained to the margins."

Andrew Breitbart, founder of Breitbart News, was a proponent of the conspiracy theory. His 2011 book Righteous Indignation: Excuse Me While I Save the World represents one of the conspiracy theory's moves towards the mainstream. Breitbart's interpretation of the conspiracy is similar in most respects to that of Lind. Breitbart attributes the spread of the ideas of the Frankfurt School from universities to a wider audience to "trickledown intellectualism", and claims that Saul Alinsky introduced cultural Marxism to the masses in his 1971 handbook Rules for Radicals. Woods argues that Breitbart focuses on Alinsky in order to associate cultural Marxism with the modern Democratic Party, and Hillary Clinton. Breitbart claims that George Soros funds the alleged cultural Marxism project. Breitbart News has published the idea that Theodor Adorno's atonal music was an attempt at inducing the population to necrophilia on a mass scale.

In the late 2010s, Canadian clinical psychologist Jordan Peterson popularized "Cultural Marxism" as a term, moving it into mainstream discourse. Several writers stated that Peterson blamed "Cultural Marxism" for demanding the use of gender-neutral pronouns as a threat to free speech, often misusing postmodernism as a stand-in term for the conspiracy without understanding its antisemitic implications, specifying that "Peterson isn't an ideological anti-Semite; there's every reason to believe that when he re-broadcasts fascist propaganda, he doesn't even hear the dog-whistles he's emitting". Former Breitbart contributors Ben Shapiro and Charlie Kirk, founder of Turning Point USA, have promoted the conspiracy theory, especially the claim that Cultural Marxist activity is happening in universities.

Concerns for false balance

Spencer Sunshine, an associate fellow at the Political Research Associates, stated that "the focus on the Frankfurt School by the right serves to highlight its inherent Jewishness." In particular, Paul and Sunshine have criticized traditional media such as The New York Times, New York and The Washington Post for either not clarifying the nature of the conspiracy theory and for "allowing it to live on their pages." An example is an article in The New York Times by David Brooks, who "rebrands cultural Marxism as mere political correctness, giving the Nazi-inspired phrase legitimacy for the American right. It is dropped in or quoted in other stories—some of them lighthearted, like the fashion cues of the alt-right—without describing how fringe this notion is. It's akin to letting conspiracy theories about chem trails or vaccines get unearned space in mainstream press." Another is Andrew Sullivan, who went on "to denounce 'cultural Marxists' for inspiring social justice movements on campuses." Paul and Sunshine concluded that failure to highlight the nature of the Cultural Marxist conspiracy theory "has bitter consequences. 'It is legitimizing the use of that framework, and therefore it's [sic] coded antisemitism.'"

Sociologists Julia Lux and John David Jordan assert that the conspiracy theory can be broken down into its key elements: "misogynist anti-feminism, neo-eugenic science (broadly defined as various forms of genetic determinism), genetic and cultural white supremacy, McCarthyist anti-Leftism fixated on postmodernism, radical anti-intellectualism applied to the social sciences, and the idea that a purge is required to restore normality." They go on to say that all of these items are "supported, proselytised and academically buoyed by intellectuals, politicians, and media figures with extremely credible educational backgrounds."

Political discourses

In "Taking On Hate: One NGO's Strategies" (2009), the political scientist Heidi Beirich said that the Cultural Marxism theory demonizes the cultural bêtes noires of conservatism such as feminists, LGBT social movements, secular humanists, multiculturalists, sex educators, environmentalists, immigrants and black nationalists.

Jamin writes on the flexiblity conspiracy theory to serve the rhetorical purposes of different groups with diverse sets of enemies:

Next to the global dimension of the Cultural Marxism conspiracy theory, there is its innovative and original dimension, which lets its authors avoid racist discourses and pretend to be defenders of democracy. As such, Cultural Marxism is innovative in comparison with old styled theories of a similar nature, such as those involving Freemasons, Bavarian Illuminati, Jews or even Wall Street bankers. For Lind, Buchanan and Breivik, the threat does not come from the migrant or the Jew because he is a migrant or a Jew. For Lind, the threat comes from the Communist ideology, which is considered as a danger for freedom and democracy, and which is associated with different authoritarian political regimes (Russia, China, Cambodia, Cuba, etc.). For Buchanan, the threat comes from atheism, relativism and hard capitalism which, when combined, transform people and nations into an uncontrolled mass of alienated consumers. For Breivik, a self-indoctrinated lone-wolf, the danger comes from Islam, a religion seen as a totalitarian ideology which threatens liberal democracies from Western Europe as much as its Judeo-Christian heritage. In Lind, Buchanan and Breivik, overt racism is studiously avoided.

In "Liberalism and Socialism Mortal Enemies Or Embittered Kin?" (2021), professor Matthew McManus said that "the objectives of proponents of conspiratorial views about Cultural Marxism were (and are) not to give a current account of Critical Theory, but to advance a conservative version of US liberalism against the scapegoat of global conspiracy theory." and "In short, what Critical Theory provides to those who use "critical theory" to signal a socialist threat to liberalism is not only a link to Marxist thought, but also a straw man against which to advance neoliberal politics."

Australia

Shortly after the Norway attacks, mainstream right-wing politicians began espousing the conspiracy. In 2013, Cory Bernardi, a member of the ruling Liberal Party, wrote in his book The Conservative Revolution that "cultural Marxism has been one of the most corrosive influences on society over the last century." Five years later, Fraser Anning, former Australian Senator, initially sitting as a member of Pauline Hanson's One Nation and then Katter's Australian Party, declared during his maiden speech in 2018 that "Cultural Marxism is not a throwaway line but a literal truth" and spoke of the need for a "final solution to the immigration problem."

In 2022, Liberal Party Senator Hollie Hughes, speaking at The Australia Institute, blamed "an education system run by marxists" teaching "absolute left wing rubbish" for why so many young people voted against the Liberal Party in the 2022 Australian federal election. Minister for Education Jason Clare responded by calling the Senator's comments "crazy" and compared them to "reds under the bed."

Brazil

In Brazil, the government of Jair Bolsonaro contained a number of administration members who promoted the conspiracy theory, including Eduardo Bolsonaro, the president's son who "enthusiastically described Steve Bannon as an opponent of Cultural Marxism."

Cuba

In 2010, former head of state Fidel Castro called attention to a version of the conspiracy theory by Daniel Estulin, which proposed that the Bilderberg Group sought to influence world events via the spread of rock and roll music. Estulin's work was based on Minnicino's 1992 essay which emphasized Adorno's involvement in the Radio Research Project. Martin Jay described Estulin's text as "risible" and explained that, although some in the Frankfurt School wrote about the potential for mass media to pacify labor movements, it was something they lamented rather than planned to implement. Castro invited Estulin to Cuba, where they issued a joint statement claiming Osama bin Laden was a CIA asset and that the United States was planning a nuclear war against Russia. In 2019, Jay wrote that Castro's interest in the conspiracy theory had no long-term consequences.

United Kingdom

During the Brexit debate in 2019, a number of Conservatives and Brexiteers espoused the conspiracy theory.

Suella Braverman, the Conservative Member of Parliament (MP), said in a pro-Brexit speech for the Bruges Group, a Eurosceptic think tank, that "[w]e are engaging in many battles right now. As Conservatives, we are engaged in a battle against cultural Marxism, where banning things is becoming de rigueur, where freedom of speech is becoming a taboo, where our universities — quintessential institutions of liberalism — are being shrouded in censorship and a culture of no-platforming." Her usage of the conspiracy theory was condemned as hate speech by other MPs, the Board of Deputies of British Jews and the anti-racist organization Hope Not Hate. After meeting with her later, the Board of Deputies of British Jews said that she is "not in any way antisemitic." Braverman was alerted to this connection by journalist Dawn Foster, but she defended using the term. Braverman denied that the term Cultural Marxism is an antisemitic trope, stating during a question and answer session "whether she stood by the term, given its far-right connections. She said: 'Yes, I do believe we are in a battle against cultural Marxism, as I said. We have culture evolving from the far left which has allowed the snuffing out of freedom of speech, freedom of thought.'" Braverman further added that she was "very aware of that ongoing creep of cultural Marxism, which has come from Jeremy Corbyn."

Nigel Farage has promoted the cultural Marxist conspiracy theory, for which he has been condemned by other MPs and Jewish groups such as the Board of Deputies of British Jews, who said he used it as a dog-whistle code for antisemitism in the United Kingdom. Farage said that the United Kingdom faced "cultural Marxism", a term described in its report by The Guardian as "originating in a conspiracy theory based on a supposed plot against national governments, which is closely linked to the far right and antisemitism." Farage's spokesman "condemned previous criticism of his language by Jewish groups and others as 'pathetic' and 'a manufactured story.'"

In The War Against the BBC (2020), Patrick Barwise and Peter York write how the Cultural Marxism conspiracy theory has been pushed by some on the right as part of an alleged bias of the BBC. Yasmin Alibhai-Brown cites Dominic Cummings, Tim Montgomerie and the right-wing website Guido Fawkes as examples of "relentlessly [complaining] about the institution's 'cultural Marxism' or left-wing bias. This now happens on a near-daily basis."

In November 2020 a letter signed by 28 Conservative MPs published in The Telegraph accused the National Trust of being "coloured by cultural Marxist dogma, colloquially known as the 'woke agenda'". The use of this terminology in the letter was described by the All-Party Parliamentary Group Against Antisemitism, Jewish Council for Racial Equality, anti-racist charity Hope Not Hate and the Campaign Against Antisemitism as antisemitic.

United States

Chip Berlet identified the culture war conspiracy theory as the basic ideology of the Tea Party movement within the Republican Party. As a self-identified right-wing movement, the Tea Party claims they are suffering the same cultural subversion suffered by earlier generations of white nationalists. According to Berlet, the populist rhetoric of regional economic elites encourages counter-subversion panics, by which a large constituency of white middle-class people are deceived into unequal political alliances to defend their place in the middle class. Moreover, the failures of free-market capitalism are scapegoated onto the local collectives, communists, labor organisers, non-white citizens and immigrants by manipulating patriotism, economic libertarianism, traditional Christian values and nativism.

In 2017, it was reported that advisor Richard Higgins was fired from the United States National Security Council for publishing the memorandum '"POTUS & Political Warfare" that alleged the existence of a left-wing conspiracy to destroy Donald Trump's presidency because "American public intellectuals of Cultural Marxism, foreign Islamicists, and globalist bankers, the news media, and politicians from the Republican and Democratic parties were attacking Trump, because he represents an existential threat to the cultural Marxist memes that dominate the prevailing cultural narrative in the US." Higgins also asserted that the Frankfurt School "sought to deconstruct everything in order to destroy it, giving rise to society-wide nihilism." The memo was read by Donald Trump Jr. who passed on a copy of it to his father.

Matt Shea, a Washington Representative from the Republican Party, is a proponent of the conspiracy theory

See also

• Andinia Plan
• Antisemitic canard
• Blood libel
• Cultural Bolshevism
• Doctors' plot
• Great Replacement
• Pizzagate conspiracy theory
• The Eternal Jew (art exhibition)
• The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century
• Franklin Prophecy
• The International Jew
• The Protocols of the Elders of Zion
• Jewish Bolshevism
• Judeo-Masonic conspiracy theory
• Kosher tax conspiracy theory
• QAnon
• Rootless cosmopolitan
• Stab-in-the-back myth
• Well poisoning
• White genocide conspiracy theory
• Zionist Occupation Government conspiracy theory
• Żydokomuna

Further reading

• “The Frankfurt School on Antisemitism, Authoritarianism, and Right-wing Radicalism: The Politics of Unreason: The Frankfurt School and the Origins of Modern Antisemitism, by Lars Rensmann, Albany, NY, SUNY Press, 2017, xv + 600 pp., $25.95 (paperback), ISBN 978-1-43846-594-4”. European Journal of Cultural and Political Sociology 7 (2): 198–214. (2020). doi:10.1080/23254823.2020.1742018. 
• De Bruin, Robin (2021). “European union as a road to serfdom: The Alt-Right's inversion of narratives on European integration”. Journal of Contemporary European Studies 30: 52–66. doi:10.1080/14782804.2021.1960489. 
• “'Take this country back!': Die neue Rechte in den USA” (ドイツ語). Die Neue Rechte — eine Gefahr für die Demokratie?. VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften. (2004). pp. 175–185. ISBN 978-3-322-81016-8 
• “Anders Breivik et le "marxisme culturel": Etats-Unis/Europe”. Amnis (12). (2013). doi:10.4000/AMNIS.2004. 
• “Cultural Marxism and the Radical Right” (英語). The Post-War Anglo-American Far Right: A Special Relationship of Hate. Palgrave Macmillan UK. (2014). pp. 84–103. ISBN 978-1-137-39621-1 
• “Cultural Marxism: A survey”. Religion Compass 12 (1–2): e12258. (2018). doi:10.1111/REC3.12258. 
• “The Alt-right's Discourse on 'Cultural Marxism': A Political Instrument of Intersectional Hate” (英語). Atlantis: Critical Studies in Gender, Culture & Social Justice 39 (1): 49–69. (2018). ISSN 1715-0698. https://journals.msvu.ca/index.php/atlantis/article/view/5403. 
• Paternotte, David; Verloo, Mieke (2021). “De-democratization and the Politics of Knowledge: Unpacking the Cultural Marxism Narrative”. Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society 28 (3): 556–578. doi:10.1093/sp/jxab025. 
• Copsey, Nigel; Richardson, John E., eds (2015). “'Cultural-Marxism' and the British National Party: A transnational discourse” (英語). Cultures of Post-War British Fascism. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-53937-7 
• Richards, Imogen; Jones, Callum (2021). “Quillette, classical liberalism, and the international New Right”. Contemporary Far-Right Thinkers and the Future of Liberal Democracy. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-003-10517-6 
• “Cultural Marxism and the Cathedral: Two Alt-Right Perspectives on Critical Theory” (英語). Critical Theory and the Humanities in the Age of the Alt-Right. Springer International Publishing. (2019). pp. 39–59. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-18753-8_3. ISBN 978-3-030-18753-8. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-18753-8_3 
• “Cultural Marxism” (英語). Krisis: Journal for Contemporary Philosophy 2018 (2): 32–34. (2018). hdl:11245.1/7b72bcec-9ad2-4dc4-8395-35b4eeae0e9e. https://hdl.handle.net/11245.1/7b72bcec-9ad2-4dc4-8395-35b4eeae0e9e. 

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北米における外出禁止令（がいしゅつきんしれい）、または自宅待機令（じたくたいきれい）は、エピデミックもしくはパンデミックを抑制あるいは沈静することを目的とする集団検疫戦略として、都市等住民の移動を制限する当局からの命令のこと。北米では stay-at-home order と呼ばれ、東南アジアでは movement control order（移動制限令）と呼ばれる。

これが発令されると、住民らは必需の用を足すため、もしくは必需と位置付けられる仕事に行くため以外には、自宅から出ないよう命令されることとなる。多くの場合、屋外活動自体は禁止はされない。不要不急と位置付けられた分野の商業は休業となるか、自宅からのリモート勤務となる。

北米以外にも世界各国・各地で同様の措置がとられているが、それらはロックダウン （英語: lockdown）と呼ばれている。「ロックダウン」という用語は、中国の武漢で行われたように、当局が感染者を徹底的に捜索して強制的に隔離していくことだという間違ったイメージにつながるとの懸念も示されているため、注意が必要である。

用語法

「ロックダウン」も参照

2020年1月、武漢市において2019新型コロナウイルスによる急性呼吸器疾患 (COVID-19) のアウトブレイクをコントロールすることを目的として中国政府がとった住民の移動制限措置について、「ロックダウン」という用語が、メディアおよび世界保健機関 (WHO) によって使われた。

また、イタリア当局が同国北部について厳しい隔離命令を発令したときも、メディアは同じく「ロックダウン」という用語を使った。その後、スペイン、フランスなど世界各国で動揺の措置がとられた際も、同じ用語が用いられた。この「ロックダウン」という用語は、公衆衛生の用語ではなく法的な用語でもないが、各国政府の措置を言うために報道用語として使われることが常態化している。この用語は、多くの国々が同様の措置をとるようになるにつれて定義が変わり、当初の中国における厳しい移動制限よりも緩い制限についても用いられている。一方で、中国での厳しい措置とは違うということをはっきり印象付けるために、「ロックダウン」以外の語も用いられるようになっている。

米国の多くの裁判所管轄区域では、「外出禁止令」について「家にいましょう、安全でいましょう」という標語を使って呼びかけている。

2020年3月、サンフランシスコ・ベイエリア当局が住民に対し、COVID-19のアウトブレイクを抑制するため、自宅に留まるようにという命令を出したときは、「一時退避令 (shelter-in-place order)」という用語が用いられたが、これが、「銃撃犯が銃を持ったまま町に潜伏中ですので、安全が確認されるまでは、今いる建物から出ないでください」といった状況で用いられる "shelter in place" という表現と同じであるため、住民の間に混乱を招いた。

その後、カリフォルニア州でギャビン・ニューサム知事が、ベイエリアを含む全州規模の命令を発令した際に、「外出禁止令（自宅待機令）(stay-at-home order)」という表現が用いられた。米国内の他の州も、同様の全州を対象とする命令を発令する際に、この用語を採用した。ニューヨーク州のアンドリュー・クオモ知事は、記者会見において、「一時退避」という用語を使うのは銃撃犯が潜伏中の場合や核戦争を想起させるとして、批判的な態度を明確にしている 。

米国における「ロックダウン」

アメリカ合衆国においては、「ロックダウン」という用語は緊急事態に際する場合に広く用いられている。「ロックダウン」では、個々人が即座に身を隠したり、建物のドアというドアすべてに施錠したりといったことが必要になるほか、電灯を消したり窓から離れたりといったことも行なわれる。米国では児童・生徒が日々の学校生活の中で「ロックダウン訓練」に参加している。また、「ロックダウン」は戒厳令をも想起させる用語で、人々は家からまったく出ることができないと思い込んでしまいかねない。このように、米国の人々にとって「ロックダウン」は感染症対策での市民の外出制限とはまるで違うことを意味する用語であるため、感染症対策の場合は別な用語を使うよう、留意が必要である。

全米各州・各郡で、住民らに自宅に留まるよう指示する命令を発令したときは、「一時退避令 (shelter-in-place order)」もしくは「外出禁止令（自宅待機令）(stay-at-home order)」という表現が用いられていたが、自宅の出入りが完全にできなくなるのではなく条件付きで可能であることから、これらの命令は「ロックダウン」ではないということが明確化されている。また、いくつかの裁判所の管轄区域では、「外出禁止令」と「一時退避令」の間には法的もしくは実務的な違いがあるとの判断が示されている。

Orders

A sign at a playground in Sheboygan, Wisconsin notes the stay-at-home order of Governor Tony Evers (the noted "Emergency Order #12") as the reason for closing access to the playground equipment, and the criminal consequences of violating the order.

Powers

In the United States, the United States constitutional law gives a police power to the states. State governments can use this power within their own state. However, there is no clear authority for either the federal government or state governments to impose such a lockdown between states. In term of legality of an order, the government must be able to prove that the order advances a "compelling government interest" and the actions are narrow to specifically achieve that goal and they are not unnecessary broad.

Scopes

The scope of the lockdowns or stay-at-home orders can vary. There is no universal definition of what is deemed essential. Some orders allow residents to come out for outdoor activities. When residents come out of the house, the social distancing rules are typically applied. Some examples of essential services are banks, gas stations, grocery stores, medical offices, pharmacies, and restaurants (without dining in).

In more restrictive measures in some locations, they require residents to carry paperwork in order to go out to do essential tasks. In the most restrictive orders such as in China and Italy, they are considered to amount to cordon sanitaires.

Effectiveness

In the early days of China's lockdown to combat COVID-19, manyTemplate:Quantify public-health officials and the World Health Organization praised the efforts in helping to slow the spread of the disease. However, manyTemplate:Quantify public-health experts regard the measures as ineffective and unethical, expressing concern about a violation of public trust - which is required in order to have cooperation from the public to make social-distancing measures effective.

2020 coronavirus pandemic

詳細は「Curfews and lockdowns related to the 2019–20 coronavirus pandemic」を参照

China

詳細は「2020 Hubei lockdowns」を参照

Italy

詳細は「2020 Italy coronavirus lockdown」を参照

India

「Indian local government response to the 2020 coronavirus pandemic」および「2020 India coronavirus lockdown」も参照

On 22 March 2020, the Government of India decided to completely lockdown 82 districts in 22 states and Union Territories of country where confirmed cases have been reported till 31 March. Essential services and commodities were allowed. 80 cities including major cities such as Bengaluru, Chennai, Delhi, Mumbai, Pune and Kolkata were also put under lockdown until 31 March. The country entered complete lockdown from 25 March 2020 for 21 days amid increase in number of cases.

Malaysia

詳細は「2020 Malaysia movement control order」を参照

New Zealand

詳細は「2020 coronavirus pandemic in New Zealand」を参照

On 23 March 2020, Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern raised New Zealand's COVID-19 alert level to three and announced the closure of all schools beginning on that day. The Government also announced that they would raise the national alert level to four at 11:59 p.m. on 25 March 2020, which would lead to a nationwide lockdown. While all sporting matches and events as well as non-essential services such as pools, bars, cafes, restaurants, playgrounds are required to close in 48 hours, essential services such as supermarkets, petrol stations, and health services will remain open.

Philippines

詳細は「2020 Luzon enhanced community quarantine」を参照

Singapore

詳細は「2020 coronavirus pandemic in Singapore」を参照

On 3 April 2020, Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong announced that Singapore will be strengthening its restrictions in view of evidence of growing spread within the community and the risk of asymptomatic spread from 7 April to 4 May. All non-essential services such as retail, recreation, sports and attractions, as well as schools are required to close during this period. Essential services such as supermarkets, some eateries, petrol kiosks, logistics, basic haircuts, public transport, facilities management, management of key IT infrastructures and health services will remain open with stringent restrictions. These measures include the prohibition of dining-in in eateries, suspending and/or reducing the frequency of bus and MRT services, and requiring almost all commercial and educational services to work and study from home respectively. All mid-year exams in primary, secondary schools and junior colleges, as well as graduation ceremonies during this period are cancelled. Military in-camp training for NSmen are also postponed till further notice. On 8 April 2020, it was announced in Parliament that all residents have to serve a de-facto stay-at-home order, and wearing masks will be compulsory when going out for essentials and exercise. All gatherings, regardless of any size and in any area nationwide are totally banned, with enforcement by police, military and officers from the relevant government agencies.

United Kingdom

詳細は「2020 coronavirus pandemic in the United Kingdom」を参照

At 8:30 p.m. on 23 March 2020, Prime Minister Boris Johnson announced a stay-at-home order effective immediately. All non-essential shops and services were ordered to close, and police were given discretion to break up gatherings of more than two people. Johnson stated that the stay-at-home order will be reviewed after three weeks.

United States

詳細は「U.S. state and local government response to the 2020 coronavirus pandemic」を参照

States, territories, and counties that issued a stay-at-home order:

  Came into effect before 22 March

  Came into effect before 29 March

  Came into effect before 5 April

  Came into effect before 12 April

Full map including municipalities

Stay-at-home orders in the United States have come from several states and a large number of local jurisdictions, sometimes leading to conflicts between different levels of government and a patchwork of inconsistent dates and rules.

On 15 March 2020, Puerto Rico governor Wanda Vázquez Garced signed an executive order to order all citizens to stay home starting at 9 p.m. with exceptions in limited circumstances between 5 a.m. and 9 p.m. Governmental operations and non-essential businesses were to be closed until 30 March.

The first order within the states was simultaneously imposed by health authorities in heart of the San Francisco Bay Area (Alameda, Contra Costa, Marin, San Mateo, and Santa Clara counties and the cities of San Francisco and Berkeley) effective 17 March 2020, affecting nearly 6.7 million people. Other cities and counties across the state followed suit over the next two days, until Gavin Newsom, the governor of California, issued a statewide order effective 19 March 2020.

On 20 March 2020, New York governor Andrew Cuomo announced the statewide stay-at-home order with a mandate that 100% of non-essential workforce to be conducted as working from home effective 22 March. Illinois governor J. B. Pritzker followed that lead on the same day with a statewide order which would go into effect on 21 March at 5 p.m. Ned Lamont, the governor of Connecticut, signed an executive order called "Stay Safe, Stay At Home" to take effect statewide on 23 March at 8 p.m.

On 21 March 2020, New Jersey governor Phil Murphy announced a statewide stay-at-home order effective at 9 p.m. on the same day.

On 22 March 2020, Ohio governor Mike DeWine and Ohio Department of Health director Amy Acton issued a statewide stay-at-home order effective 23 March. In the afternoon, the Louisiana governor John Bel Edwards announced a statewide stay-at-home order in a press conference. Delaware governor John Carney followed suit with a stay-at-home order for his state.

On 23 March 2020, several state governors announced their statewide stay-at-home order:

• Massachusetts governor Charlie Baker ordered non-essential businesses to close in-person operations effective 24 March until 7 April and directed the Massachusetts Department of Public Health to issue a stay-at-home advisory.
• Michigan governor Gretchen Whitmer announced her statewide executive order to stay-at-home at 11:00 am for all non-essential businesses effective 24 March until 13 April.
• Indiana governor Eric Holcomb announced statewide stay-at-home order effective 25 March until 7 April.
• West Virginia governor Jim Justice ordered non-essential businesses to be closed immediately, and stay-at-home order effective at 8 p.m.
• After growing calls from local officials on Sunday, Oregon governor Kate Brown issued a stay-at-home order on Monday effective immediately with class C misdemeanor charges for violators.
• New Mexico governor Michelle Lujan Grisham announced a statewide stay-at-home order that requires 100% of non-essential business workforce to work from home effective 24 March until 10 April.
• Washington governor Jay Inslee signed a statewide stay-at-home proclamation and ordered to close non-essential businesses effective 25 March for two weeks.
• Hawaii governor David Ige issued a statewide stay-at-home order effective 25 March which was similar to the orders that were previously issued for Maui and Honolulu counties.

On 24 March 2020, Wisconsin governor Tony Evers issued a statewide stay-at-home order to close all non-essential businesses and ordered no gatherings of any size effective 25 March until 24 April. Vermont governor Phil Scott signed a stay-at-home order and directed closure of in-person operations of non-essential businesses effective 25 March until 15 April.

On 25 March, Idaho governor Brad Little and Minnesota governor Tim Walz issued stay-at-home orders for their respective states. Colorado Govenor Jared Polis puts the state of Colorado in complete lock-down, with a stay at home order. This started on Thursday the 26th at 6 a.m. and lasts through 11 April 2020.

On 2 April, Georgia governor Brian Kemp issued stay-at-home order effective Friday, April 3, 2020, until Monday, April 13, 2020. It overrules any local stay-at-home restrictions previously in place, and instructs residents to stay at home unless they're conducting "essential services," meaning either traveling to and from jobs or other exceptions, including buying groceries; purchasing medical equipment; going out to exercise; and visiting medical facilities. The same day, Dr. Anthony Fauci publicly questions why all states are not under stay-at-home orders.

Indian nations

On 20 March 2020, Navajo Nation announced that it broadened the stay-at-home order to cover the entire reservation, which is the largest reservation in the country.

On 23 March 2020, Yakama Nation announced its "Stay Home, Stay Healthy" order.