利用者:D.h/芸術/芸術の記事

この記事について

このページは、Portal:芸術を作成する際の参考資料として、en:The artsを翻訳したもので、現在作業途中です。日本語版記事は、芸術を参照してください。

Translation from en:The arts 2007-06-10T03:27:12. By DavidBrooks, Fplay, Cfitzart, Jpbowen, Summerwind, et al.

The arts is a broad subdivision of en:culture, composed of many expressive disciplines. In modern usage, it is a term broader than "en:art", which usually means the en:visual arts (comprising both en:fine art, en:decorative art, and en:crafts). The arts encompasses en:visual arts, en:performing arts, en:language arts, and en:culinary arts. Many artistic disciplines involve aspects of the various arts, so the definitions of these terms overlap to some degree.

History

The great traditions in en:art have a foundation in the art of one of six ancient civilizations:

Ancient Greek art saw a veneration of the human form and the development of equivalent skills to show musculature, poise, beauty and anatomically correct proportions. Ancient Roman art depicted gods as idealized humans, shown with characteristic distinguishing features (i.e. en:Zeus' thunderbolt).

In Byzantine and Gothic art of the en:Middle Ages, the dominance of the church insisted on the expression of biblical and not material truths.

Eastern art has generally worked in a style akin to Western medieval art, namely a concentration on surface patterning and local colour (meaning the plain colour of an object, such as basic red for a red robe, rather than the modulations of that colour brought about by light, shade and reflection). A characteristic of this style is that the local colour is often defined by an outline (a contemporary equivalent is the cartoon). This is evident in, for example, the art of India, Tibet and Japan.

Religious en:Islamic art forbids iconography, and expresses religious ideas through geometry instead.

The physical and rational certainties depicted by the 19th-century Enlightenment were shattered not only by new discoveries of relativity by Einstein [1] and of unseen psychology by Freud, [2] but also by unprecedented technological development.

Increasing global interaction during this time saw an equivalent influence of other cultures into Western art.

The various arts

A precise definition of the arts can be contentious, but the following areas of activity usually are included:

Historically, the arts included the en:Artes Liberales (en:liberal arts) taught in medieval universities as part of the Trivium (en:grammar, en:rhetoric, and en:logic) and the en:Quadrivium (en:arithmetic, en:geometry, en:music, and en:astronomy.)

In modern en:academia, the arts are usually grouped with or a subset of the en:Humanities. Some subjects in the Humanities are en:history, en:linguistics, en:literature, en:philosophy, en:women's studies.

Newspapers such as the en:New York Times and en:The Times of en:London typically include a section on the arts.

Drawing

→詳細は「drawing」を参照

en:Drawing is a means of making an en:image, using any of a wide variety of tools and techniques. It generally involves making marks on a surface by applying pressure from a tool, or moving a tool across a surface. Common tools are en:graphite en:pencils, en:pen and ink, en:inked en:brushes, wax en:color pencils, en:crayons, en:charcoals, en:pastels, and markers. Digital tools which simulate the effects of these are also used. The main techniques used in drawing are: line drawing, en:hatching, crosshatching, random hatching, scribbling, en:stippling, and blending. An artist who excels in drawing is referred to as a draftsman or draughtsman.

Architecture

The en:Parthenon on top of the en:Acropolis, en:Athens, en:Greece

→詳細は「architecture」を参照

Architecture (from Latin, architectura and ultimately from Greek, αρχιτεκτων, "a master builder", from αρχι- "chief, leader" and τεκτων, "builder, carpenter")^[3] is the en:art and en:science of designing en:buildings and en:structures.

A wider definition would include within its scope the design of the total built environment, from the macrolevel of en:town planning, en:urban design, and en:landscape architecture to the microlevel of creating en:furniture. Architectural design usually must address both feasibility and en:cost for the builder, as well as function and en:aesthetics for the user.

In modern usage, architecture is the en:art and en:discipline of creating an actual, or inferring an implied or apparent plan of any complex object or en:system. The term can be used to connote the implied architecture of abstract things such as en:music or en:mathematics, the apparent architecture of natural things, such as geological formations or the structure of biological cells, or explicitly planned architectures of human-made things such as en:software, en:computers, enterprises, and en:databases, in addition to buildings. In every usage, an architecture may be seen as a subjective mapping from a human perspective (that of the user in the case of abstract or physical artifacts) to the elements or components of some kind of en:structure or system, which preserves the relationships among the elements or components.

Planned architecture often manipulates en:space, en:volume, en:texture, en:light, en:shadow, or abstract elements in order to achieve pleasing en:aesthetics. This distinguishes it from en:applied science or en:engineering, which usually concentrate more on the functional and feasibility aspects of the design of constructions or structures.

In the field of building architecture, the skills demanded of an architect range from the more complex, such as for a en:hospital or a en:stadium, to the apparently simpler, such as planning en:residential houses. Many architectural works may be seen also as cultural and political en:symbols, and/or works of art. The role of the architect, though changing, has been central to the successful (and sometimes less than successful) design and implementation of pleasingly built environments in which people live.

Painting

→詳細は「painting」を参照

Painting taken literally is the practice of applying en:pigment suspended in a vehicle (or medium) and a binding agent (a glue) to a en:surface (support) such as en:paper, en:canvas ,wood panel or a wall. However, when used in an artistic sense it means the use of this activity in combination with en:drawing, composition and other aesthetic considerations in order to manifest the expressive and conceptual intention of the practitioner. Painting is also used to express spiritual motifs and ideas; sites of this kind of painting range from artwork depicting mythological figures on pottery to The Sistine Chapel to the human body itself.

en:Colour is the essence of painting as en:sound is of en:music. Colour is highly subjective, but has observable psychological effects, although these can differ from one culture to the next. Black is associated with mourning in the West, but elsewhere white may be. Some painters, theoreticians, writers and scientists, including en:Goethe, Kandinsky, Newton, have written their own en:colour theory. Moreover the use of language is only a generalisation for a colour equivalent. The word "en:red", for example, can cover a wide range of variations on the pure red of the spectrum. There is not a formalised register of different colours in the way that there is agreement on different en:notes in music, such as C or C#, although the en:Pantone system is widely used in the printing and design industry for this purpose.

Modern artists have extended the practice of painting considerably to include, for example, en:collage. This began with en:Cubism and is not painting in strict sense. Some modern painters incorporate different materials such as en:sand, en:cement, en:straw or en:wood for their en:texture. Examples of this are the works of en:Jean Dubuffet or en:Anselm Kiefer.

Modern and contemporary art has moved away from the historic value of craft in favour of en:concept; this has led some to say that painting, as a serious art form, is dead, although this has not deterred the majority of artists from continuing to practise it either as whole or part of their work.

Literature

→詳細は「language」および「literature」を参照

Literature' is literally "acquaintance with letters" as in the first sense given in the en:Oxford English Dictionary (from the en:Latin littera meaning "an individual written character (en:letter)"). The term has generally come to identify a collection of en:writings, which in Western culture are mainly en:prose, both en:fiction and en:non-fiction, en:drama and en:poetry. In much, if not all of the world, texts can be oral as well, and include such en:genres as epic, en:legend, myth, en:ballad, other forms of oral poetry, and the en:folktale.

Performing arts

The performing arts differ from the en:plastic arts insofar as the former uses the artist's own body, face, presence as a medium, and the latter uses materials such as clay, metal or paint which can be molded or transformed to create some art object.

Performing arts include en:acrobatics, en:busking, en:comedy, en:dance, magic, en:music, en:opera, en:film, en:juggling, en:martial arts, en:marching arts, such as en:brass bands, and en:theatre.

Artists who participate in these arts in front of an audience are called performers, including en:actors, en:comedians, en:dancers, en:musicians, and en:singers. Performing arts are also supported by workers in related fields, such as en:songwriting and en:stagecraft.

Performers often adapt their appearance, such as with en:costumes and stage makeup, etc.

There is also a specialized form of en:fine art in which the artists perform their work live to an audience. This is called en:Performance art. Most performance art also involves some form of plastic art, perhaps in the creation of props. Dance was often referred to as a plastic art during the en:Modern dance era.

Music

en:Music as an academic discipline mainly focuses on two career paths, music en:performance (focused on the en:orchestra and the en:concert hall) and en:music education (training music teachers). Students learn to play instruments, but also study en:music theory, en:musicology, en:history of music and composition. In the liberal arts tradition, music is also used to broaden skills of non-musicians by teaching skills such as concentration and listening.

Theatre

→詳細は「Theatre」を参照

Theatre or theater (Greek "theatron", θ?ατρον) is the branch of the en:performing arts concerned with en:acting out stories in front of an audience using combinations of speech, gesture, music, dance, sound and spectacle — indeed any one or more elements of the other performing arts. In addition to the standard narrative dialogue style, theatre takes such forms as en:opera, en:ballet, mime, en:kabuki, en:classical Indian dance, en:Chinese opera, mummers' plays, and en:pantomime.

Dance

en:Dance (from en:Old French dancier, perhaps from Frankish) generally refers to en:human movement either used as a form of en:expression or presented in a en:social, spiritual or en:performance setting.

Dance is also used to describe methods of en:non-verbal communication (see en:body language) between humans or en:animals (bee dance, mating dance), motion in inanimate objects (the en:leaves danced in the en:wind), and certain musical forms or genres.

en:Choreography is the art of making dances, and the person who does this is called a choreographer. People danced to relieve stress.

Definitions of what constitutes dance are dependent on social, cultural, en:aesthetic, en:artistic and en:moral constraints and range from functional movement (such as en:Folk dance) to codified, en:virtuoso techniques such as en:ballet. In en:sports, en:gymnastics, en:figure skating and en:synchronized swimming are dance disciplines while en:Martial arts 'kata' are often compared to dances.